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Kumul Rebellion
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Kumul Rebellion
The Kumul Rebellion (Chinese: 哈密暴動; pinyin: Hāmì bàodòng; lit. 'Hami Uprising') was a rebellion from 1931 to 1934 of Kumulik Uyghurs who conspired with Hui Chinese Muslim General Ma Zhongying to overthrow Jin Shuren, the governor of Xinjiang Province. The Kumulik Uyghurs were loyal to the Kumul Khanate and wanted to restore the heir to the khanate and overthrow Jin. The Kuomintang wanted Jin removed because of his unapproved negotiations with the Soviet Union, so Chinese Premier Chiang Kai-shek secretly approved of the operation while ostensibly acknowledging Jin as governor. The rebellion eventually catapulted into large-scale fighting as Khotanlik Uyghur rebels in Southern Xinjiang started a separate rebellion for independence in collusion with Kyrgyz rebels. The various groups of rebels were not united and some even fought each other.
Governor Jin Shuren (Chin Shu-jen) came to power shortly after the assassination of Xinjiang (Sinkiang) Governor Yang Zengxin (Yang Tseng-sin) in 1928. Jin was notoriously intolerant of the local Turkic peoples (i.e. the Uyghurs and Kyrgyz) and openly antagonised them. Such acts of discrimination included restrictions on travel, increased taxation, seizure of property without due process, and frequent executions for suspected espionage or disloyalty. Jin also had Hui Chinese Muslims (formerly Tungans) in his provincial army such as Ma Shaowu.
In 1930 Jin annexed the Kumul Khanate, a small semi-autonomous state lying within the borders of Xinjiang. The Kumul khans were Chagataids, and hence the last ruling descendants of Genghis Khan. According to British missionaries Mildred Cable and Francesca French, who knew the last khan Maqsud Shah, the existence of the Khanate of Kumul was important to the Uyghurs, who tolerated Chinese rule so long as their own government was established at Kumul under the proud title of "King of the Gobi". Jin, pressed for funding and swamped with Han Chinese refugees fleeing warlordism elsewhere in China, decided to annex the khanate to seize its revenues and use its lands to take in refugees. The newly subjected Kumuliks' land was expropriated by the provincial government and given to Han settlers. As a result, rebellion broke out on 20 February 1931, and many Han were massacred by the local population. The uprising threatened to spread throughout the entire province. Yulbars Khan, an advisor at the Kumul court, appealed for help to Ma Zhongying, a Hui warlord in Gansu (Kansu), to overthrow Jin and restore the khanate.[citation needed] Some scholars alternately describe a Han officer forcing a Uyghur woman to marry him as the event that triggered the rebellion.
Ma's troops marched to Kumul and laid siege to government forces there. Although he was victorious elsewhere in the area, Ma was unable to capture the city. After being wounded that October in a battle in which Jin's forces included 250 White Russian troops whom he had recruited from the Ili valley (where they had settled after the Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War), Ma withdrew his forces to Gansu (where he was nursed by Mildred Cable and the sisters Francesca and Eva French, whom he kept captive until he had recovered). This would temporarily leave the Turkic rebels to fight Jin alone.
The Kumulik Uyghur commanders Yulbars and Khoja Niyaz had also been receiving aid from the Mongolian People's Republic (Outer Mongolia), which itself had received assistance from the Soviet Union.
Ma meanwhile had a secret agreement with the Kuomintang, the party which governed China's central government: if he won Xinjiang, he would be recognised by the Kuomintang as the legitimate ruler of the province. Ma was officially appointed commanding officer of the New 36th Division of the National Revolutionary Army by the Kuomintang government in Nanjing. Asked to intervene against Jin on behalf of the Turkic population, Ma readily agreed.
Jin bought two biplanes from the Soviet Union in September 1931 at 40,000 Mexican silver dollars each. They were equipped with machine guns and bombs and flown by Russian pilots. He signed a secret treaty with the Soviet Union in October 1931 that quickly led to suppression of the Kumul Rebellion and the deblockading of Kumul by provincial troops on 30 November 1931. Jin received large gold credits from the Soviet government for acquiring arms and weapons from the Soviet army and opening Soviet trade agencies in eight provincial towns: Ghulja, Chuguchak, Altai, Ürümqi, Karashahr, Kucha, Aksu, Kashgar, Yarkand, and Khotan. The Kuomintang wanted Jin removed since he had signed the treaty with the Soviets without central government approval.
A separate Uyghur uprising emerged in Khotan, located in Southern Xinjiang. It has been suggested[by whom?] that the United Kingdom may have supported this rebellion as a means to counter Soviet influence. Unlike the Kumulik Uyghurs, whose primary goal was the restoration of the Kumul Khanate and the removal of Jin Shuren, the Khotanlik Uyghurs sought complete independence and harboured strong opposition toward both the Han and Hui populations. They were led by Muhammad Amin Bughra and his brothers Abdullah Bughra and Nur Ahmadjan Bughra. Their leader, Sabit Damulla Abdulbaki, called for the expulsion of the Hui (Tungans) in a proclamation:
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Kumul Rebellion
The Kumul Rebellion (Chinese: 哈密暴動; pinyin: Hāmì bàodòng; lit. 'Hami Uprising') was a rebellion from 1931 to 1934 of Kumulik Uyghurs who conspired with Hui Chinese Muslim General Ma Zhongying to overthrow Jin Shuren, the governor of Xinjiang Province. The Kumulik Uyghurs were loyal to the Kumul Khanate and wanted to restore the heir to the khanate and overthrow Jin. The Kuomintang wanted Jin removed because of his unapproved negotiations with the Soviet Union, so Chinese Premier Chiang Kai-shek secretly approved of the operation while ostensibly acknowledging Jin as governor. The rebellion eventually catapulted into large-scale fighting as Khotanlik Uyghur rebels in Southern Xinjiang started a separate rebellion for independence in collusion with Kyrgyz rebels. The various groups of rebels were not united and some even fought each other.
Governor Jin Shuren (Chin Shu-jen) came to power shortly after the assassination of Xinjiang (Sinkiang) Governor Yang Zengxin (Yang Tseng-sin) in 1928. Jin was notoriously intolerant of the local Turkic peoples (i.e. the Uyghurs and Kyrgyz) and openly antagonised them. Such acts of discrimination included restrictions on travel, increased taxation, seizure of property without due process, and frequent executions for suspected espionage or disloyalty. Jin also had Hui Chinese Muslims (formerly Tungans) in his provincial army such as Ma Shaowu.
In 1930 Jin annexed the Kumul Khanate, a small semi-autonomous state lying within the borders of Xinjiang. The Kumul khans were Chagataids, and hence the last ruling descendants of Genghis Khan. According to British missionaries Mildred Cable and Francesca French, who knew the last khan Maqsud Shah, the existence of the Khanate of Kumul was important to the Uyghurs, who tolerated Chinese rule so long as their own government was established at Kumul under the proud title of "King of the Gobi". Jin, pressed for funding and swamped with Han Chinese refugees fleeing warlordism elsewhere in China, decided to annex the khanate to seize its revenues and use its lands to take in refugees. The newly subjected Kumuliks' land was expropriated by the provincial government and given to Han settlers. As a result, rebellion broke out on 20 February 1931, and many Han were massacred by the local population. The uprising threatened to spread throughout the entire province. Yulbars Khan, an advisor at the Kumul court, appealed for help to Ma Zhongying, a Hui warlord in Gansu (Kansu), to overthrow Jin and restore the khanate.[citation needed] Some scholars alternately describe a Han officer forcing a Uyghur woman to marry him as the event that triggered the rebellion.
Ma's troops marched to Kumul and laid siege to government forces there. Although he was victorious elsewhere in the area, Ma was unable to capture the city. After being wounded that October in a battle in which Jin's forces included 250 White Russian troops whom he had recruited from the Ili valley (where they had settled after the Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War), Ma withdrew his forces to Gansu (where he was nursed by Mildred Cable and the sisters Francesca and Eva French, whom he kept captive until he had recovered). This would temporarily leave the Turkic rebels to fight Jin alone.
The Kumulik Uyghur commanders Yulbars and Khoja Niyaz had also been receiving aid from the Mongolian People's Republic (Outer Mongolia), which itself had received assistance from the Soviet Union.
Ma meanwhile had a secret agreement with the Kuomintang, the party which governed China's central government: if he won Xinjiang, he would be recognised by the Kuomintang as the legitimate ruler of the province. Ma was officially appointed commanding officer of the New 36th Division of the National Revolutionary Army by the Kuomintang government in Nanjing. Asked to intervene against Jin on behalf of the Turkic population, Ma readily agreed.
Jin bought two biplanes from the Soviet Union in September 1931 at 40,000 Mexican silver dollars each. They were equipped with machine guns and bombs and flown by Russian pilots. He signed a secret treaty with the Soviet Union in October 1931 that quickly led to suppression of the Kumul Rebellion and the deblockading of Kumul by provincial troops on 30 November 1931. Jin received large gold credits from the Soviet government for acquiring arms and weapons from the Soviet army and opening Soviet trade agencies in eight provincial towns: Ghulja, Chuguchak, Altai, Ürümqi, Karashahr, Kucha, Aksu, Kashgar, Yarkand, and Khotan. The Kuomintang wanted Jin removed since he had signed the treaty with the Soviets without central government approval.
A separate Uyghur uprising emerged in Khotan, located in Southern Xinjiang. It has been suggested[by whom?] that the United Kingdom may have supported this rebellion as a means to counter Soviet influence. Unlike the Kumulik Uyghurs, whose primary goal was the restoration of the Kumul Khanate and the removal of Jin Shuren, the Khotanlik Uyghurs sought complete independence and harboured strong opposition toward both the Han and Hui populations. They were led by Muhammad Amin Bughra and his brothers Abdullah Bughra and Nur Ahmadjan Bughra. Their leader, Sabit Damulla Abdulbaki, called for the expulsion of the Hui (Tungans) in a proclamation:
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