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Nahj al-balagha
Nahj al-balāgha (Arabic: نَهْج ٱلْبَلَاغَة, lit. 'the path of eloquence') is the best-known collection of sermons, letters, and sayings attributed to Ali ibn Abi Talib (d. 661), the fourth Rashidun caliph (r. 656–661), the first Shia imam, and the cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The compilation of the book is often credited to Sharif al-Radi (d. 1015), a prominent Shia scholar. Known for its moral aphorisms and eloquent content, Nahj al-balagha is widely studied in the Islamic world and has considerably influenced the Arabic literature and rhetoric. In view of its sometimes sensitive content, the authenticity of the book has long been a subject of polemic debates, though recent academic research suggests that most of its contents can indeed be attributed to Ali by tracking the texts in sources that predate al-Radi.
Nahj al-balagha is an eleventh-century collection of more than two-hundred sermons, nearly eighty letters, and almost five-hundred sayings, all attributed to Ali ibn Abi Talib, who was the fourth Rashidun caliph (r. 656–661) and the first Shia imam. The sermons and letters in Nahj al-balagha offer a commentary on the political career of Ali, and have served as an ideological basis for Islamic governance. In particular, the letter of instructions therein addressed to Malik al-Ashtar (d. 657), a commander of Ali, has received much attention as a model for just and righteous Islamic governance. The book includes detailed discussions about social responsibilities, emphasizing that greater responsibilities result in greater rights.
Nahj al-balagha contains sensitive material, such as sharp criticism of the predecessors of Ali, and disapproval of the triumvirate who revolted against Ali in the Battle of the Camel in 656, namely, Talha and Zubayr, who were both senior companions of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and his widow Aisha. The book remains relevant to the ongoing clerical debates about the role and status of women in Islamic societies. Nahj al-balagha contains passages about morality and doctrine, notably about the sovereignty of God and the essence of the Quran and the prophethood. Among them, the letter of life advices addressed to Hasan, the eldest son of Ali, has received considerable attention.
Recognized as an example of the most eloquent Arabic, Nahj al-balagha is said to have significantly influenced the Arabic literature and rhetoric. The book has been the focus of numerous commentaries, translations, and studies by both Sunni and Shia authors. In particular, the comprehensive commentary of the Mu'tazilite scholar Ibn Abil-Hadid (d. 1258) may have amplified the influence of Nahj al-balagha on theological speculation, philosophical thought, and literary scope. In it, he describes Nahj al-balagha as "below the speech of the Creator but above the speech of creatures."
The compilation of Nahj al-balagha is often credited to Sharif al-Radi (d. 1015), a renowned Shia scholar who lived over three hundred years after Ali. A poet of some merit, al-Radi came from a distinguished Shia family in Baghdad and had connections to the Buyids, the Shia dynasty that ruled the area at the time. His intentions in compiling the book are described as "literary, ethical, and spiritual," and he does not provide isnads, that is, chains of transmission for his texts. In view of its sometimes sensitive content, the attribution of this book to Ali or al-Radi has long been a subject of polemic debates, as with the majority of the works about Shia theology.
The authenticity of Nahj al-balagha was first challenged over two centuries after al-Radi, perhaps indicating that his sources were well known during his lifetime but were lost gradually. Indeed, it was the Sunni historian Ibn Khallikan (d. 1282) who first suggested that the book was authored, rather than compiled, by al-Radi or by his brother Sharif al-Murtada (d. 1044), another prominent Shia theologian. Yet elsewhere Ibn Khallikan cited the book without hesitation. The Sunni theologians Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 1328) and al-Dhahabi (d. 1348) have similarly rejected most of Nahj al-balagha, and this has been the prevalent Sunni view to date. Among Western scholars, this view was shared by Carl Brockelmann (d. 1956) and Baron de Slane (d. 1878), who apparently mistook the word 'Murtada' on the manuscript as the name of its author and thus attributed the book to Sharif al-Murtada, probably unaware that Murtada is a well-known epithet of Ali. The Mu'tazilite Ibn Abil-Hadid was nevertheless confident that Nahj al-balagha is the work of Ali, but suspected that its controversial Shaqshaqiya sermon was authored by al-Radi. Alternatively, the Sunni historian Khatib al-Baghdadi (d. 1071) rejected only the eschatological sermons found in the book. By contrast, the Shia regard Nahj al-balagha as authentic.
Much of the content of Nahj al-balagha already exists in earlier historical works, including Waq'at Siffin by the Shia historian Nasr ibn Muzahim (d. 827–828), Tarikh al-Ya'qubi by the Shia-leaning historian al-Ya'qubi (d. 897–898), Tarikh al-Tabari by the Sunni historian al-Tabari (d. 923), al-Bayan wa'l tabyin by the Sunni author al-Jahiz (d. 869), al-Kamil by the Sunni historian al-Mubarrad (d. 898), and al-Ansab by the Sunni historian al-Baladhuri (d. 892). These authors considerably predate al-Radi, which led the Islamicist Husain M. Jafri (d. 2019) to confirm the attribution of Nahj al-balagha to Ali. Similarly, the orientalist Laura Veccia Vaglieri (d. 1989) verified the attribution of 'a large portion' of Nahj al-balagha to Ali. Muktar Djebli, another expert, traced back 'a considerable number of passages' to Ali with their isnads. Some recent Shia works have similarly tracked the passages of the book in earlier sources, including Madarek-e Nahj al-balagha by Ostadi, Masadir Nahj al-balagha wa asaniduh by Abd al-Zahra al-Husayni al-Khatib, and Madarik Nahj al-balagha by Abd-Allah Nima. There are also other collections attributed to Ali that predate Nahj al-balagha, including Khutab Ali by the Sunni historian Ibn al-Kalbi (d. 819), al-Fihrist by the historian Ibn al-Nadim (d. c. 995), and Khutab Ali by al-Mada'ini (d. 843), a Sunni historian.
There is also strong circumstantial evidence that al-Radi was the compiler of the book: It appears that he included fragments of passages as he found them instead of combining them, thus presenting variants of the same sermon. In particular, the passages are not in the correct chronological order. All extant manuscripts of Nahj al-balagha also introduce al-Radi as the compiler of the material from Ali. Another evidence that supports the compilation of the book by ar-Radi is that he refers to his other works in the margins of Nahj al-balagha and vice versa, and discloses some of his sources, namely, al-Bayan, Tarikh al-Tabari, and Jamal by the Sunni historian al-Waqidi (d. 823). Finally, the linguistic style does not seem to change throughout the book, a style that has been highly praised for its eloquence (balagha) and rhetoric by some authorities, including al-Jahiz and the poet Ibn Nubata (d. 1366). Indeed, one argument for the fabrication of Nahj al-balagha is that its rhyming prose is too precise and polished, while the Shia counterargument is that Ali was a gifted orator, known for his saj', that is, improvised speech with rhyming prose. Nevertheless, some parts of Nahj al-balagha were likely copy-edited, and gauging the authenticity of its sensitive passages has proved challenging.
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Nahj al-balagha
Nahj al-balāgha (Arabic: نَهْج ٱلْبَلَاغَة, lit. 'the path of eloquence') is the best-known collection of sermons, letters, and sayings attributed to Ali ibn Abi Talib (d. 661), the fourth Rashidun caliph (r. 656–661), the first Shia imam, and the cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The compilation of the book is often credited to Sharif al-Radi (d. 1015), a prominent Shia scholar. Known for its moral aphorisms and eloquent content, Nahj al-balagha is widely studied in the Islamic world and has considerably influenced the Arabic literature and rhetoric. In view of its sometimes sensitive content, the authenticity of the book has long been a subject of polemic debates, though recent academic research suggests that most of its contents can indeed be attributed to Ali by tracking the texts in sources that predate al-Radi.
Nahj al-balagha is an eleventh-century collection of more than two-hundred sermons, nearly eighty letters, and almost five-hundred sayings, all attributed to Ali ibn Abi Talib, who was the fourth Rashidun caliph (r. 656–661) and the first Shia imam. The sermons and letters in Nahj al-balagha offer a commentary on the political career of Ali, and have served as an ideological basis for Islamic governance. In particular, the letter of instructions therein addressed to Malik al-Ashtar (d. 657), a commander of Ali, has received much attention as a model for just and righteous Islamic governance. The book includes detailed discussions about social responsibilities, emphasizing that greater responsibilities result in greater rights.
Nahj al-balagha contains sensitive material, such as sharp criticism of the predecessors of Ali, and disapproval of the triumvirate who revolted against Ali in the Battle of the Camel in 656, namely, Talha and Zubayr, who were both senior companions of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and his widow Aisha. The book remains relevant to the ongoing clerical debates about the role and status of women in Islamic societies. Nahj al-balagha contains passages about morality and doctrine, notably about the sovereignty of God and the essence of the Quran and the prophethood. Among them, the letter of life advices addressed to Hasan, the eldest son of Ali, has received considerable attention.
Recognized as an example of the most eloquent Arabic, Nahj al-balagha is said to have significantly influenced the Arabic literature and rhetoric. The book has been the focus of numerous commentaries, translations, and studies by both Sunni and Shia authors. In particular, the comprehensive commentary of the Mu'tazilite scholar Ibn Abil-Hadid (d. 1258) may have amplified the influence of Nahj al-balagha on theological speculation, philosophical thought, and literary scope. In it, he describes Nahj al-balagha as "below the speech of the Creator but above the speech of creatures."
The compilation of Nahj al-balagha is often credited to Sharif al-Radi (d. 1015), a renowned Shia scholar who lived over three hundred years after Ali. A poet of some merit, al-Radi came from a distinguished Shia family in Baghdad and had connections to the Buyids, the Shia dynasty that ruled the area at the time. His intentions in compiling the book are described as "literary, ethical, and spiritual," and he does not provide isnads, that is, chains of transmission for his texts. In view of its sometimes sensitive content, the attribution of this book to Ali or al-Radi has long been a subject of polemic debates, as with the majority of the works about Shia theology.
The authenticity of Nahj al-balagha was first challenged over two centuries after al-Radi, perhaps indicating that his sources were well known during his lifetime but were lost gradually. Indeed, it was the Sunni historian Ibn Khallikan (d. 1282) who first suggested that the book was authored, rather than compiled, by al-Radi or by his brother Sharif al-Murtada (d. 1044), another prominent Shia theologian. Yet elsewhere Ibn Khallikan cited the book without hesitation. The Sunni theologians Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 1328) and al-Dhahabi (d. 1348) have similarly rejected most of Nahj al-balagha, and this has been the prevalent Sunni view to date. Among Western scholars, this view was shared by Carl Brockelmann (d. 1956) and Baron de Slane (d. 1878), who apparently mistook the word 'Murtada' on the manuscript as the name of its author and thus attributed the book to Sharif al-Murtada, probably unaware that Murtada is a well-known epithet of Ali. The Mu'tazilite Ibn Abil-Hadid was nevertheless confident that Nahj al-balagha is the work of Ali, but suspected that its controversial Shaqshaqiya sermon was authored by al-Radi. Alternatively, the Sunni historian Khatib al-Baghdadi (d. 1071) rejected only the eschatological sermons found in the book. By contrast, the Shia regard Nahj al-balagha as authentic.
Much of the content of Nahj al-balagha already exists in earlier historical works, including Waq'at Siffin by the Shia historian Nasr ibn Muzahim (d. 827–828), Tarikh al-Ya'qubi by the Shia-leaning historian al-Ya'qubi (d. 897–898), Tarikh al-Tabari by the Sunni historian al-Tabari (d. 923), al-Bayan wa'l tabyin by the Sunni author al-Jahiz (d. 869), al-Kamil by the Sunni historian al-Mubarrad (d. 898), and al-Ansab by the Sunni historian al-Baladhuri (d. 892). These authors considerably predate al-Radi, which led the Islamicist Husain M. Jafri (d. 2019) to confirm the attribution of Nahj al-balagha to Ali. Similarly, the orientalist Laura Veccia Vaglieri (d. 1989) verified the attribution of 'a large portion' of Nahj al-balagha to Ali. Muktar Djebli, another expert, traced back 'a considerable number of passages' to Ali with their isnads. Some recent Shia works have similarly tracked the passages of the book in earlier sources, including Madarek-e Nahj al-balagha by Ostadi, Masadir Nahj al-balagha wa asaniduh by Abd al-Zahra al-Husayni al-Khatib, and Madarik Nahj al-balagha by Abd-Allah Nima. There are also other collections attributed to Ali that predate Nahj al-balagha, including Khutab Ali by the Sunni historian Ibn al-Kalbi (d. 819), al-Fihrist by the historian Ibn al-Nadim (d. c. 995), and Khutab Ali by al-Mada'ini (d. 843), a Sunni historian.
There is also strong circumstantial evidence that al-Radi was the compiler of the book: It appears that he included fragments of passages as he found them instead of combining them, thus presenting variants of the same sermon. In particular, the passages are not in the correct chronological order. All extant manuscripts of Nahj al-balagha also introduce al-Radi as the compiler of the material from Ali. Another evidence that supports the compilation of the book by ar-Radi is that he refers to his other works in the margins of Nahj al-balagha and vice versa, and discloses some of his sources, namely, al-Bayan, Tarikh al-Tabari, and Jamal by the Sunni historian al-Waqidi (d. 823). Finally, the linguistic style does not seem to change throughout the book, a style that has been highly praised for its eloquence (balagha) and rhetoric by some authorities, including al-Jahiz and the poet Ibn Nubata (d. 1366). Indeed, one argument for the fabrication of Nahj al-balagha is that its rhyming prose is too precise and polished, while the Shia counterargument is that Ali was a gifted orator, known for his saj', that is, improvised speech with rhyming prose. Nevertheless, some parts of Nahj al-balagha were likely copy-edited, and gauging the authenticity of its sensitive passages has proved challenging.
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