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Names of Seoul
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An early 20th century trading card from Germany, using an alternate spelling of Seoul, with "ö" for "eo".

Seoul, the capital of South Korea, has been called by a number of formal and informal names over time. The word seoul was originally a common noun that simply meant "capital city", and was used colloquially to refer to the capital throughout Korean history. Seoul became the official name of the South Korean capital after its liberation from Japan after the Second World War.

Historically, the city of what is now Seoul has been called in various names, including Wiryeseong, Bukhansangun, Hanyang, Namgyeong, Hanyangbu, Hanseong, Gyeongseong, and Keijō.

Etymology of "Seoul"

[edit]

The name Seoul (서울; IPA: /səˈul/), was originally an old native Korean common noun meaning "capital city." It is believed to have originated from Seorabeol (서라벌; 徐羅伐),[1] which originally referred to Gyeongju, the capital of Silla, which was then called Geumseong (금성; 金城).[2] Seorabeol, which also appears in old texts as "Seonabeol" (서나벌; 徐那伐), "Seobeol" (서벌; 徐伐) or "Seoyabeol" (서야벌; 徐耶伐), is theorized to have originated from the word seora (which comes from an ancient word meaning "high and holy") and beol (which means "field").[3]

History

[edit]
See also: History of Seoul

During the Korean Three Kingdoms Period, the first kingdom to conquer the Han River basin, which is home to the city that is now modern-day Seoul, was Baekje (18 BC – 660 AD). In 18 A.D., King Onjo of Baekje built the kingdom's capital of Wiryeseong (위례성; 慰禮城), which was located inside the boundaries of modern-day Seoul. The fortress was also called Hanseong (한성; 漢城).[3]

In 475, Goguryeo (37 BC – 668 AD) forces under King Jangsu attacked Wiryeseong. Upon conquering the Baekje capital, Goguryeo established the commandery of Bukhansan (Bukhansangun; Korean: 북한산군; Hanja: 北漢山郡) in the regions surrounding the city. Bukhansangun was also called Nampyeongyang (Korean: 남평양; Hanja: 南平壤; lit. South Pyeongyang).[3]

The city was called Hanyang in the Northern and Southern States period (698–926), and Namgyeong (남경; 南京) in the Goryeo period (918–1392).

The city was called Hanyangbu (한양부; 漢陽府) under Goryeo (1270–1356), and Hanseong (한성; 漢城) or Hanyang (한양; 漢陽) in the Joseon period (1392–1897).

During the Joseon era, it started to be called Seoul by the public. In the middle of Joseon era, Hanseong and Hanyang were almost replaced by Seoul and remained only formal names.[4] During the period of Japanese colonial rule, Seoul was referred to by the Japanese exonym Keijō (京城), or the Korean reading of that name Gyeongseong. After World War II and Korea's liberation, the city officially adopted its current name.[5]

Gyeongseong

[edit]
Gyeongseong
Hangul
경성
Hanja
京城
RRGyeongseong
MRKyŏngsŏng

"Gyeongseong" is a Sino-Korean word for "capital city". Gyeong (경; 京) means "capital" and seong (성; 城) means "walled city". It was in occasional use to refer to Seoul throughout the Joseon dynasty,[6][7] having earlier referred to the capitals of Goryeo and Silla. The term came into much wider use during the period of Japanese rule because it is also the Korean form of Keijō (京城), the former Japanese name, which was used for Seoul during the colonial rule. The name "Keijō" for "Seoul" remained in use in Japan for about a decade after the end of World War II. From the 1960s onwards, "Seoul" (ソウル - Souru) gained currency at the request of the South Korean government, and is the most commonly-used Japanese name today, with "Keijō" being relegated to historical or academic use only.

Seoul was called "Hanseong" (漢城) or "Hanyang" (漢陽) during the Joseon dynasty but the city's main railway station, Seoul Station, opened with the name "Gyeongseong Station" (京城驛) in 1900, which it retained until 1905.[8] It was then called Gyeongseong Station again from 1923 to 1947, when it assumed its current name.[9][10]

Gyeong is still used to refer to Seoul in the names of various railway lines and freeways, including:

Chinese characters for "Seoul"

[edit]

Unlike most other place names in Korea, "Seoul" has no corresponding Hanja (Chinese characters used to write the Korean language). This has caused problems in translating between Chinese and Korean, as Chinese terms for Korean places often are a direct reading of the Hanja names. Until recently, some Chinese sources used the older name "Hanseong" (한성; 漢城) to refer to Seoul, as that term does have corresponding Hanja.[11]

However, this led to some confusion. For example, the name of Seoul National University (서울대학교; 서울大學校) would be rendered as "Hanseong University", but there already is a university that goes by that exact reading in Chinese: Hansung University (한성대학교; 漢城大學校).[11]

Beginning in 2005, the Seoul City Government under Lee Myung-bak designated a new Chinese term for Seoul: Chinese: 首爾; Chinese: 首尔; pinyin: Shǒu'ěr.[12][13] The name was chosen by a select committee out of two names, the other being 首午爾; Shǒuwu'ěr.[13]

The chosen name is a close transliteration of Seoul in Mandarin Chinese; 首 (shǒu) can also mean "first" or "capital". For some time after the name change, Chinese-language news media have used both names interchangeably during their publications or broadcasts (首爾 [漢城] in print,[14] 首爾, 以前的漢城 [literally: Shouer, formerly Hancheng] in television and radio).[15]

The change was intended for Chinese speakers only, and has no effect on the Korean language name. The new name would be written and pronounced 수이; Sui in Korean.[13] Some linguists criticize the selection of the new name, claim that its pronunciation in Korean bears no resemblance to the native name at all, and state that its intended representation of the Korean pronunciation is effective in Mandarin but is lost in other Sinitic languages, such as in Cantonese, in which the name is pronounced "sau2 yi5", or in Shanghainese, in which the new name (首爾) is pronounced "sew2 el3." Those critics have said that the names "西蔚" or "徐蔚" (the latter being the ancient name of Seoul) would have been much more effective in representing the city's Korean name.[16]

Other

[edit]

On a 1751 map of China and Korea prepared in France, Seoul was marked as "King-Ki-Tao, Capitale de la Corée", using an approximation of the Chinese pronunciation of Gyeonggi Province (京畿道). The use of "King-Ki-Tao" to refer to Seoul was repeated again on the 1851 Tallis/Rapkin map of both Japan and Korea.[17]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Names of Seoul

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The names of Seoul designate the historical and modern appellations for the capital city of , tracing back to its founding as , the seat of the Baekje kingdom around 18 BCE, and encompassing subsequent terms such as Hanseong in ancient times, Namgyeong during the dynasty, Hanyang and Hansŏng under the dynasty, during Japanese colonial rule, and finally Seoul since 1945, a native Korean term literally meaning "capital city." These designations often reflected the city's fortified status, administrative centrality, or prevailing orthographic systems, with Hanja-derived names like Hansŏng (漢城, "Han Citadel") emphasizing its role as the capital from 1394 onward, while the post-liberation adoption of Seoul marked a deliberate shift toward indigenous linguistic roots amid efforts. Throughout its evolution, Seoul's nomenclature adapted to dynastic transitions and foreign influences, such as the Goryeo-era Namgyeong ("Southern Capital") denoting its secondary status relative to Kaesong, and the Japanese-imposed Keijō (京城, "Capital City") from 1910 to 1945, which prioritized phonetic rendering over historical Korean usage. The 1945 renaming from Gyeongseongbu (the colonial administrative term) to Seoul not only restored a pre-Hanja vernacular form but also symbolized national sovereignty following Japan's defeat in World War II, with the city elevated to Special City status in 1949 to underscore its metropolitan primacy. This progression highlights how nomenclature served as a marker of political legitimacy and cultural identity, devoid of the Sino-centric connotations in earlier Hanja compounds.

Etymology of "Seoul"

Linguistic Origins and Derivations

The name Seoul (서울 in ) originates as a native Korean noun meaning "," a term used colloquially by to refer to their central political hub long before its formal adoption as the city's official designation. This etymon reflects a pre-Sino-Korean linguistic layer in Korean, where place names and common nouns derived from indigenous roots rather than (Chinese characters) compounds, distinguishing it from official designations like Hanyang (漢陽, "Han River sunlight") or Hanseong (漢城, "Han fortress"), which were Sino-Korean administrative labels imposed during the Dynasty (1392–1910). Linguistically, traces its roots to Seorabeol (서라벌), the Old Korean name for the capital of the Kingdom (57 BCE–935 CE) at present-day , through phonetic simplification and vowel shifts characteristic of Korean sound changes over centuries. Seorabeol itself, historically rendered in as 徐羅伐 (a rather than semantic), likely stems from proto-Korean or regional dialectal forms denoting a fortified or prominent settlement, with the initial sə- cluster evolving into modern sə- in while retaining the semantic connotation of centrality. This derivation underscores Korean's agglutinative structure and historical tendency for native toponyms to abbreviate or generalize into generic terms, as seen in 's shift from a specific place reference to a pan-Korean synonym for any capital. In , Seoul functions as an irregular noun with suppletive forms: nominative Seoul-i (서울이), but oblique cases like accusative Seoul-reul (서울을), illustrating phonological adaptations from (roughly 10th–16th centuries) where liquid consonants and influenced derivation. Unlike Hanja-derived names, which encode literal meanings tied to geography or cosmology (e.g., Han referencing the Han River or ancient Han commandery), Seoul's opacity in modern Korean highlights its non-Sinitic origins, resisting direct and preserving an indigenous conceptual framework for urban primacy. Attempts to retroactively assign , such as the 2005 revision to 首爾 (Sŏul, "head" + "to arrive," implying "arrival at the capital"), are modern semantic inventions rather than historical derivations, driven by administrative standardization rather than linguistic fidelity.

Relation to Ancient Capital Terms

The vernacular Korean term "seoul" (서울), meaning "capital city," traces its origins to ancient designations for royal seats, particularly the kingdom's use of "Seorabeol" (서라벌 or variants like Seobeol) for its capital , established as the political center around 57 BCE and enduring until Silla's fall in 935 CE. This term encapsulated the concept of a paramount urban hub in native Korean lexicon, evolving into a generic noun applied colloquially to subsequent capitals, independent of their formal Sino-Korean appellations that emphasized geographic or structural features. In the Three Kingdoms era, such capital terms often incorporated Sino-Korean elements denoting fortification or centrality, as seen in Baekje's Wiryeseong (慰禮城)—the kingdom's initial capital founded in 18 BCE near the modern Seoul basin, later redesignated Hanseong (漢城) to highlight its position by the Han River (한강) as a "great fortress city." Similarly, Goguryeo's capitals featured "seong" (城) suffixes in names like Guknaeseong, underscoring defensive enclosures typical of ancient Korean urban planning amid inter-kingdom warfare. These conventions influenced Joseon-era official names for the Seoul site, such as Hanyang (漢陽), evoking the "Han" riverine locale, yet the populace persisted in using "seoul" as a neutral descriptor for the dynasty's de facto capital from 1394 onward, reflecting continuity from pre-unified kingdom precedents where native terms prioritized functional sovereignty over etymological specificity. This linguistic persistence highlights a causal distinction between administrative —often Sinicized for bureaucratic precision and ritual legitimacy—and everyday parlance rooted in empirical recognition of political primacy, a pattern observable in records from the (compiled 1145 CE), which cataloged ancient capitals without supplanting vernacular generics. Unlike rigid Hanja-based terms vulnerable to colonial reinterpretation (e.g., Japanese-era Gyeongseong), the indigenous "" endured as a resilient, non-ideological marker of , underscoring Korea's historical emphasis on geographic and institutional continuity over nominal reinvention.

Historical Names by Period

Pre-Joseon Era Names

The site of modern first emerged as a significant settlement during the Baekje kingdom, serving as its initial capital under the name Wiryeseong (慰禮城) from 18 BCE, when King Onjo founded the kingdom, until 475 CE. This fortified city, also referred to as Hanam Wiryeseong to denote its location south of the Han River, encompassed earthen fortresses such as Pungnap Toseong and Mongchontoseong, which archaeological evidence confirms through remains of walls, moats, and artifacts dating to the 1st–5th centuries CE. In 475 CE, forces under King Jangsu sacked , prompting Baekje to relocate its capital southward to Ungjin (modern ), after which the area transitioned to administration without a recorded distinct urban name for the settlement. Under subsequent control from circa 551 CE onward, following territorial shifts in the period, the Han River basin region—including the former site—functioned primarily as a peripheral area within (post-668 CE), with no prominent city-specific designation attested in historical records, as the kingdom's capital remained at . During the dynasty (918–1392 CE), the area was initially administered as (楊州), a county-level division encompassing much of present-day north of the Han River. In 1067 CE, King Yeonguijeong (or under royal directive) elevated to Namgyeong (南京), or "Southern Capital," as a secondary administrative hub to balance the primary capital at Songak (modern ) and leverage principles for geomantic stability. Namgyeong served as a strategic outpost for governance, taxation, and military purposes but lacked the full infrastructure of a primary capital until the transition. These pre- designations reflect the site's evolution from a Baekje stronghold to a provincial center, shaped by military conquests and administrative reforms rather than continuous urban primacy.

Joseon Dynasty: Hanyang and Hanseong

In 1394, King Taejo (Yi Seong-gye) relocated the newly founded Joseon Dynasty's capital from to the site of present-day , designating it Hanyang (한양; 漢陽), a pre-existing regional name for the Han River basin area enclosed by the Baekak, Namsan, and Inwang mountains. This move was driven by strategic considerations, including the site's defensibility, access to the Han River for transportation and water supply, and alignment with surrounding peaks forming a protective "dragon and tiger" configuration. Hanyang's etymology derives from "Han" (referring to the Han River) and "yang" (indicating the southern, sun-facing side of the river valley), emphasizing its geographical position north of the Han but in the sunnier, more fertile basin relative to northern terrains. Concurrently, the dynasty formalized the capital's name in as Hanseong (한성; 漢城) by 1395, denoting "Citadel of the Han" to signify a fortified urban center tied to the river's strategic role in defense and nomenclature. This official designation reflected 's sinocentric administrative traditions, where names like Hanseong-bu (the capital prefecture) appeared in royal annals, edicts, and maps, while Hanyang persisted in vernacular Korean speech, literature, and local references throughout the dynasty. The dual usage underscored a linguistic divide: Sino-Korean formality versus native Korean familiarity, with Hanyang evoking the city's organic identity as a riverine settlement dating to earlier kingdoms like Baekje's era, repurposed and expanded under Joseon. Fortress walls, known as Hanyangdoseong, were constructed starting in 1396 to encircle the capital, spanning approximately 18.6 kilometers and incorporating gates like Sungnyemun and Heunginjimun to delineate Hanseong/Hanyang as the political heart. These names remained in consistent use until the dynasty's transition to the in 1897, with no major renamings, though population growth to over 200,000 by the reinforced Hanyang's role as a densely urbanized hub of elites, markets, and palaces like . The interchangeable application—Hanseong in bureaucratic contexts and Hanyang in daily parlance—mirrored Joseon's blend of imported scholarly conventions and indigenous toponymy, without evidence of enforced preference shifts.

Japanese Colonial Period: Gyeongseong

Following Japan's annexation of Korea via the Japan-Korea Treaty signed on August 22, 1910, and proclaimed effective on August 29, 1910, the former Joseon capital of Hanseong was redesignated as Gyeongseong (경성; 京城), the Korean rendering of the Japanese administrative name Keijō. This change aligned with the establishment of the Government-General of Chōsen, positioning Gyeongseong as the central hub of Japanese colonial governance over the Korean Peninsula. The term Gyeongseong derives from characters 京 (gyeong, meaning "capital") and 城 (seong, meaning "walled city" or "citadel"), literally signifying "." Adopted to supplant indigenous , it emphasized the city's role as the administrative seat under imperial Japanese oversight, appearing in official maps, decrees, and institutions throughout the 1910–1945 period. Japanese authorities organized Gyeongseong as a special fu (prefecture-level) district, distinct from surrounding counties, to facilitate direct control and urban restructuring, including infrastructure projects like railways and administrative buildings. In practice, the name permeated colonial bureaucracy, education, and media; for instance, the daily newspaper Keijō Nippō (京城日報), known in Korean as Gyeongseong Ilbo, served as a primary organ of Japanese propaganda and information dissemination from 1920 onward. Educational establishments, such as founded in 1924, further embedded the nomenclature in official usage, training elites under Japanese curricula. Despite resistance movements like the March 1st Independence Movement originating in Gyeongseong in 1919, the name persisted as the enforced standard until Japan's surrender in August 1945.

Post-Liberation Adoption and Modernization

Transition to "Seoul" as Official Name

Following the liberation of Korea from Japanese colonial rule on August 15, 1945, the in Korea (USAMGIK) assumed administrative control over the southern portion of the peninsula, including the former Gyeongseong-bu. Informal reversion to Korean nomenclature began immediately, with "" (서울)—a vernacular term used by locals for centuries despite official designations like Hanyang or Hanseong—gaining renewed prominence as a symbol of national restoration. This shift rejected the Japanese-imposed name Gyeongseong (京城), which had been enforced since to denote a "capital city" under colonial administration. The formal transition occurred on August 15, 1946, when USAMGIK promulgated the , officially renaming Gyeongseong-bu to (-si) and establishing a municipal modeled on American principles. This charter separated the city from , reorganized it into eight districts (gu), and affirmed 's status as the capital, with a exceeding 1 million at the time. The renaming reflected practical governance needs under , prioritizing a name rooted in Korean linguistic continuity over colonial artifacts, though administrative implementation faced challenges amid postwar instability and resource shortages. Upon the establishment of the Republic of Korea on August 15, 1948, was constitutionally designated as the capital under Article 1 of the Government Organization Act, solidifying the 1946 change. In 1949, it was elevated to Special City (Teukbyeolsi), granting enhanced autonomy with nine districts and direct central oversight. This period's adoption of "" as the official name prioritized empirical alignment with pre-colonial Korean usage and causal rejection of imperial legacies, rather than ideological impositions, though retained Hanseong in its rhetoric for ideological differentiation.

2005 Hanja Revision to 首爾

In January 2005, the , under Mayor , announced a revision to the city's official designation, adopting 首爾 (Su-ui in Korean Sino-pronunciation) as its preferred Chinese character representation, replacing the historical 漢城 (Hanseong). This change aimed to create a phonetic approximation of the name "" while using characters evoking "capital" (首, shǒu, meaning "head" or "primary") and a neutral phonetic element (爾, ěr, literally "you" but selected for sound). The prior term 漢城, used since the era to denote "Han River fortress," carried connotations interpretable as " city," which officials sought to avoid amid efforts to emphasize indigenous Korean identity over historical Sinocentric associations. The revision was specifically targeted at Sinophone contexts, where 漢城 (Hànchéng) had persisted in Chinese media and maps post-1945, despite South Korea's adoption of the vernacular "" without fixed . urged Chinese authorities and media to adopt 首爾 (simplified as 首尔) for consistency in international nomenclature, arguing it better reflected the city's modern status as Korea's political and economic hub. Adoption in faced initial resistance, with some outlets and officials viewing the proposal as a rejection of traditional usage tied to the , leading to delayed implementation; however, by the late 2000s, 首尔 became standard in references. Within Korea, the shift reinforced the post-liberation prioritization of over in officialdom, but retained 首爾 for diplomatic, scholarly, and cultural contexts requiring character-based notation, such as treaties or East Asian historical texts. No legal mandate enforced the change domestically, but Seoul's endorsement influenced governmental and educational materials, aligning with broader trends in nomenclature since the 1948 founding. Critics, including some Korean traditionalists, argued 首爾 lacked etymological depth compared to 漢城's riverine and dynastic roots, potentially diluting historical continuity, though proponents highlighted its neutrality and phonetic fidelity. The revision thus marked a symbolic update, decoupling the name from Joseon-era geography while adapting to globalized, non-ideographic linguistic norms.

Variants, Nicknames, and International Usage

Informal and Regional Names

Seoul lacks prominent informal nicknames in widespread use, unlike many global capitals, and is most commonly referred to simply as the capital (sudae, 수도) in everyday Korean speech. This reflects its central role in , with residents and media often invoking "the capital" (gyeongseong in older or poetic contexts, though now archaic) to denote the city without elaboration. One notable moniker linked to Seoul is the "Miracle on the Han River" (Hangang-ui Gijeok, 한강의 기적), coined to describe the city's explosive economic transformation from the 1960s through the 1980s, when GDP per capita surged from approximately $100 in 1960 to over $6,000 by 1989 amid aggressive industrialization policies. This term, popularized during Park Chung-hee's administration (1963–1979), underscores 's role as the epicenter of South Korea's shift from agrarian poverty to urban high-tech hub, with population growth from 2.4 million in 1960 to 9.6 million by 1985 driven by rural-to-urban migration. While primarily referencing national development, it is frequently attributed to due to the concentration of factories, skyscrapers, and infrastructure along the Han River. Regional variations in naming Seoul are minimal, as the term (서울) derives from a native Korean word for "capital" without Sino-Korean hanja roots, ensuring uniformity across dialects. In the standard spoken in and around the city, it is pronounced [sʌ.ul]; peripheral dialects like Gyeongsang or Jeolla may exhibit minor phonetic shifts, such as softer vowels or tonal inflections, but retain the identical spelling and core meaning. No distinct regional synonyms exist, as Seoul's status as the undisputed political and cultural center precludes alternative designations in provincial usage.

Transliterations in Other Languages

In non-Latin scripts, the 서울 () is commonly transliterated to approximate its pronunciation /sɯ.ul/, though adaptations vary by phonological conventions and historical usage. In and , it is 首尔 (Shǒu'ěr), selected by the on January 18, 2005, to phonetically match the modern while evoking "capital" (首) and ; this replaced the earlier Hanja-based 汉城 (Hànchéng), which derived from the Joseon-era name Hanseong. In and , the traditional form 首爾 is used equivalently. In Japanese, the standard katakana rendering is ソウル (Sōru), reflecting post-liberation adoption of the phonetic Seoul over the colonial-era Keijō (京城). Western European languages largely retain the Latin-alphabet form Seoul, with minor orthographic adjustments for native phonetics and accents: French uses Séoul to indicate the initial /s/ and final /l/, as seen in 19th-century missionary accounts; German employs Seoul without diacritics; Italian favors Séoul; and Spanish adopts Seúl. These variants trace to 1840s European transliterations from French sources, prioritizing readability over strict phonetic fidelity. The table below summarizes key transliterations in selected languages:
LanguageScript/TransliterationRomanization/Notes
Chinese (Simplified)首尔Shǒu'ěr; phonetic approximation since 2005.
Chinese (Traditional)首爾Shǒu'ěr; equivalent usage in Taiwan/Hong Kong.
JapaneseソウルSōru; katakana for foreign proper nouns.
FrenchSéoulEmphasizes /e/ vowel and liaison.
SpanishSeúlAcute accent on final vowel for stress.
These forms prioritize local pronunciation norms over the (which standardizes Seoul in English), and official adoption often follows diplomatic or municipal decisions rather than .

References

  1. https://english.seoul.go.kr/seoul-views/meaning-of-seoul/1-history/
  2. https://www.etymonline.com/word/Seoul
  3. https://www.jongno.go.kr/English.do?menuId=6102&menuNo=6102
  4. https://www.britannica.com/place/Seoul
  5. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=69124
  6. https://laseoulite.substack.com/p/origins-of-the-name-korea-and-seoul
  7. https://yujinishuge.wordpress.com/2010/07/28/seoul-the-name-of-the-city/
  8. https://english.seoul.go.kr/awakening-baekje-500-years-pungnaptoseong-fortress/
  9. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13467581.2021.1944164
  10. https://korelimited.com/blogs/korelimited/history-behind-koreas-famous-cities
  11. https://samurai-archives.com/wiki/Joseon_Dynasty
  12. http://www.koreanheritage.kr/feature/view.jsp?articleNo=211
  13. https://worldjpn.net/documents/texts/pw/19100822.T1E.html
  14. https://blogs.loc.gov/maps/2018/05/maps-of-seoul-south-korea-under-japanese-occupation/
  15. https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/9d6a3390ea434e12a712477c22480cae
  16. https://www.reddit.com/r/korea/comments/16r2sq2/i_finally_accessed_the_1945_keijo_nippo/
  17. https://koreanalumnibiographiesproject.hsites.harvard.edu/people/hyung-nai-song
  18. https://museum.seoul.go.kr/eng/exhibition/permanent/permExhibit/permExhibit3.jsp
  19. https://english.seoul.go.kr/city-hall/history-of-administration/1-administrative-history/
  20. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13467581.2021.1976191
  21. https://www.sd.go.kr/eng/contents.do?key=1930
  22. https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-01/20/content_410881.htm
  23. https://www.upi.com/Top_News/2005/01/20/Seoul-changes-its-Chinese-name/10901106219647/
  24. https://www.scmp.com/article/486305/seoul-seeks-capital-change-china
  25. http://www.dragon5.com/news/news2005012604.htm
  26. https://blog.naver.com/wooyong11/221823864018
  27. https://www.mk.co.kr/news/society/7799685
  28. https://www.90daykorean.com/places-in-korean/
  29. https://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/2010/07/05/etc/Turbulent-history-entwined-future/2922741.html
  30. http://situations.yonsei.ac.kr/product/data/item/1535540297/detail/ac13e64158.pdf
  31. https://www.fiaformulae.com/en/news/1821/city-guide-everything-you-need-to-know-about-seoul
  32. https://blog.lingodeer.com/korean-dialects/
  33. https://www.koreanclass101.com/blog/2018/12/14/korean-dialects/
  34. https://chinese.yabla.com/chinese-english-pinyin-dictionary.php?define=%25E9%25A6%2596%25E5%25B0%2594
  35. https://tangorin.com/how-to-say-in-japanese/seoul
  36. https://www.nippon-names.com/en/name/Seoul
  37. https://grammarphobia.com/blog/2015/05/seoul-searching.html
  38. https://www.korean.go.kr/front_eng/roman/roman_01.do
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