Throughout modern history, a variety of perspectives on capitalism have evolved based on different schools of thought.

Adam Smith was one of the first influential writers on the topic with his book The Wealth of Nations, which is generally considered to be the start of classical economics which emerged in the 18th century. To the contrary, Karl Marx considered capitalism to be a historically specific mode of production and considered capitalism a phase of economic development that would pass and be replaced by communism. In conjunction with his criticism of capitalism was Marx's belief that exploited labor would be the driving force behind a social revolution to a socialist-style economy. For Marx, this cycle of the extraction of the surplus value by the owners of capital or the bourgeoisie becomes the basis of class struggle.

This argument is intertwined with Marx's version of the labor theory of value asserting that labor is the source of all value and thus of profit. Max Weber considered market exchange rather than production as the defining feature of capitalism. In contrast to their counterparts in prior modes of economic activity, capitalist enterprises was their rationalization of production, directed toward maximizing efficiency and productivity; a tendency leading to a sociological process of enveloping rationalization. According to Weber, workers in pre-capitalist economic institutions understood work in terms of a personal relationship between master and journeyman in a guild, or between lord and peasant in a manor.

Meanwhile institutional economics, once the main school of economic thought in the United States, holds that capitalism cannot be separated from the political and social system within which it is embedded. In the late 19th century, the German Historical School of economics diverged with the emerging Austrian School of economics, led at the time by Carl Menger. Later generations of followers of the Austrian School continued to be influential in Western economic thought through much of the 20th century. The Austrian economist Joseph Schumpeter, a forerunner of the Austrian School of economics, emphasized the creative destruction of capitalism—the fact that market economies undergo constant change.

The Austrian economists Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek were among the leading defenders of market economy against 20th century proponents of socialist planned economies. Among Mises's arguments were the economic calculation problem, which was first proposed by Mises in 1920 and later expounded by Hayek. The problem referred to is that of how to distribute resources rationally in an economy. The free market solution is the price mechanism, wherein people individually have the ability to decide how a good or service should be distributed based on their willingness to give money for it. Mises and Hayek argued that only market capitalism could manage a complex, modern economy.

Partially opposed to that view, the British economist John Maynard Keynes argued in his 1937 The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money that capitalism suffered a basic problem in its ability to recover from periods of slowdowns in investment. Keynes argued that a capitalist economy could remain in an indefinite equilibrium despite high unemployment. Keynes tried to provide solutions to many of Marx’s problems without completely abandoning the classical understanding of capitalism. His work attempted to show that regulation can be effective and that economic stabilizers can rein in the aggressive expansions and recessions that Marx disliked.

These changes sought to create more stability in the business cycle and reduce the abuses of laborers. Keynesian economists argue that Keynesian policies were one of the primary reasons capitalism was able to recover following the Great Depression.

Supply-side economics developed during the 1970s in response to Keynesian economic policy and in particular the failure of demand management to stabilize Western economies during the stagflation of the 1970s in the wake of the oil crisis in 1973. It drew on a range of non-Keynesian economic thought, particularly Austrian School thinking on entrepreneurship and new classical macroeconomics. The intellectual roots of supply-side economics have also been traced back to various early economic thinkers such as Ibn Khaldun, Jonathan Swift, David Hume, Adam Smith and Alexander Hamilton. Typical policy recommendations of supply-side economics are lower marginal tax rates and less regulation. Maximum benefits from taxation policy are achieved by optimizing the marginal tax rates to spur growth, although it is a common misunderstanding that supply side economics is concerned only with taxation policy when it is about removing barriers to production more generally.