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Rashidun Caliphate
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Rashidun Caliphate
The Rashidun Caliphate (Arabic: ٱلْخِلَافَةُ ٱلرَّاشِدَةُ, romanized: al-Khilāfah ar-Rāšidah) is a title given for the reigns of the first caliphs (lit. "successors") — Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali collectively — believed to represent the perfect Islam and governance who led the Muslim community and polity from the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad (in 632 AD), to the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate (in 661 AD). The reign of these four caliphs is considered in Islam to have been "rightly-guided", meaning that it constitutes a model to be followed and emulated from a religious point of view. This term is not used by Shia Muslims, who make up 10–15% of the global Muslim population, as they reject the rule of the first three caliphs as illegitimate.
Following Muhammad's death in June 632, Muslim leaders debated who should succeed him. Unlike later caliphs, Rashidun were often chosen by some form of a small group of high-ranking companions of the Prophet in shūrā (lit. 'consultation') or appointed by their predecessor. Muhammad's close companion Abu Bakr (r. 632–634), of the Banu Taym clan, was elected the first caliph in Medina and began the re-conquest of the Arabian Peninsula. The only Rashidun not to die by assassination, he was succeeded by Umar (r. 634–644), his appointed successor from the Banu Adi clan. Under Umar, the caliphate expanded at an unprecedented rate, conquering more than two-thirds of the Byzantine Empire and nearly the entire Sasanian Empire.
After Umar's assassination, Uthman (r. 644–656), a member of the Umayyad clan, was chosen as caliph. He concluded the conquest of Persia in 651 and continued expeditions into the Byzantine territories. Uthman was assassinated in June 656 and succeeded by Ali (r. 656–661), a member of the Banu Hashim clan, who transferred the capital to Kufa. Ali presided over the civil war called the First Fitna as his suzerainty was unrecognized by Uthman's kinsman and Syria's governor Mu'awiya ibn Abu Sufyan (r. 661–680), who believed that Uthman's murderers should be punished immediately. Additionally, a third faction known as Kharijites, who were former supporters of Ali, rebelled against both Ali and Mu'awiya after refusing to accept the arbitration in the Battle of Siffin. The war led to the overthrow of the Rashidun Caliphate and the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate in 661 by Mu'awiya.
Derived from the Arabic word rushd, rāshid (rāshid راشد) means "one who has attained the right path or maturity", al-Khulafāʾ ar-Rāšidūn (الْخُلَفاءُ الرّاشِدُونَ) is an honorific title meaning "successors or representatives who have been guided to the right path". This also implies that they were endowed with superior piety and wisdom, and supports the deeply held belief that their era was a "golden age" following Muhammad in holiness, moral and religious guidance. It was in the 9th century, during the Abbasid era, that these first caliphs were first qualified as rāshidūn.
In addition, a Sunni hadith, attributed to Muhammad predicted that the prophetic succession would last for thirty years, which have been interpreted by some Sunni scholars as evidence that Hasan's six-month caliphate was "rightly-guided" also. These caliphs were the "orthodox" or "patriarchal" caliphs accepted by the majority in Islamic history. However, in the Shiite understanding of Islam, the material and spiritual heritage of Muhammad including governance power was represented by the Imams who were his descendants (except for the 1st Imam Ali), the numbers of which varied according to the Shiite subgroups, and just like the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs, the Rashidun caliphs, except for Ali and Hasan, were the individuals who usurped this right. Ibadism does not see the caliphate as an institution that includes all believers and must be obeyed; it also sees the two caliphs after Muhammad as being on the right path and the others as having strayed into injustice.
The stories were written “a posteriori” in the form of “founding conquest stories” based on nostalgia for the golden age in Abbasids time. Humphrey, quoted by Antoine Borrut, explains that the stories related to this period were created according to a pact-betrayal-redemption principle. However, at least one inscription has been found dating to the period that mentions Umar by name and the date of his death, known as the inscription of Zuhayr. Its three lines read:
Robert G. Hoyland, finds it "all but certain" that the inscription refers to the historical Umar, adding, "and yet the absence of any epithet or title is striking". Graphites may be susceptible to alternative readings due to the erasure of letters by environmental influences and inadequate writing system, and unless specifically stated, dating can only be done approximately based on the "writing style". Other possible mentions in inscriptions from that era could be read as Amr or Usthman Ibn Affan include: an inscription at Tayma, Saudi Arabia, and one at the Alia Palace archaeological site in Makkah Province, Saudi Arabia.
Coins: Unlike known historical figures such as Ibn Zubayr and Mu'awiya I who lived during this period, there are no coins minted in the name of these caliphs that could be evidence of political hegemony. The coins in circulation during the specified period contain two types of designs:
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Rashidun Caliphate
The Rashidun Caliphate (Arabic: ٱلْخِلَافَةُ ٱلرَّاشِدَةُ, romanized: al-Khilāfah ar-Rāšidah) is a title given for the reigns of the first caliphs (lit. "successors") — Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali collectively — believed to represent the perfect Islam and governance who led the Muslim community and polity from the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad (in 632 AD), to the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate (in 661 AD). The reign of these four caliphs is considered in Islam to have been "rightly-guided", meaning that it constitutes a model to be followed and emulated from a religious point of view. This term is not used by Shia Muslims, who make up 10–15% of the global Muslim population, as they reject the rule of the first three caliphs as illegitimate.
Following Muhammad's death in June 632, Muslim leaders debated who should succeed him. Unlike later caliphs, Rashidun were often chosen by some form of a small group of high-ranking companions of the Prophet in shūrā (lit. 'consultation') or appointed by their predecessor. Muhammad's close companion Abu Bakr (r. 632–634), of the Banu Taym clan, was elected the first caliph in Medina and began the re-conquest of the Arabian Peninsula. The only Rashidun not to die by assassination, he was succeeded by Umar (r. 634–644), his appointed successor from the Banu Adi clan. Under Umar, the caliphate expanded at an unprecedented rate, conquering more than two-thirds of the Byzantine Empire and nearly the entire Sasanian Empire.
After Umar's assassination, Uthman (r. 644–656), a member of the Umayyad clan, was chosen as caliph. He concluded the conquest of Persia in 651 and continued expeditions into the Byzantine territories. Uthman was assassinated in June 656 and succeeded by Ali (r. 656–661), a member of the Banu Hashim clan, who transferred the capital to Kufa. Ali presided over the civil war called the First Fitna as his suzerainty was unrecognized by Uthman's kinsman and Syria's governor Mu'awiya ibn Abu Sufyan (r. 661–680), who believed that Uthman's murderers should be punished immediately. Additionally, a third faction known as Kharijites, who were former supporters of Ali, rebelled against both Ali and Mu'awiya after refusing to accept the arbitration in the Battle of Siffin. The war led to the overthrow of the Rashidun Caliphate and the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate in 661 by Mu'awiya.
Derived from the Arabic word rushd, rāshid (rāshid راشد) means "one who has attained the right path or maturity", al-Khulafāʾ ar-Rāšidūn (الْخُلَفاءُ الرّاشِدُونَ) is an honorific title meaning "successors or representatives who have been guided to the right path". This also implies that they were endowed with superior piety and wisdom, and supports the deeply held belief that their era was a "golden age" following Muhammad in holiness, moral and religious guidance. It was in the 9th century, during the Abbasid era, that these first caliphs were first qualified as rāshidūn.
In addition, a Sunni hadith, attributed to Muhammad predicted that the prophetic succession would last for thirty years, which have been interpreted by some Sunni scholars as evidence that Hasan's six-month caliphate was "rightly-guided" also. These caliphs were the "orthodox" or "patriarchal" caliphs accepted by the majority in Islamic history. However, in the Shiite understanding of Islam, the material and spiritual heritage of Muhammad including governance power was represented by the Imams who were his descendants (except for the 1st Imam Ali), the numbers of which varied according to the Shiite subgroups, and just like the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs, the Rashidun caliphs, except for Ali and Hasan, were the individuals who usurped this right. Ibadism does not see the caliphate as an institution that includes all believers and must be obeyed; it also sees the two caliphs after Muhammad as being on the right path and the others as having strayed into injustice.
The stories were written “a posteriori” in the form of “founding conquest stories” based on nostalgia for the golden age in Abbasids time. Humphrey, quoted by Antoine Borrut, explains that the stories related to this period were created according to a pact-betrayal-redemption principle. However, at least one inscription has been found dating to the period that mentions Umar by name and the date of his death, known as the inscription of Zuhayr. Its three lines read:
Robert G. Hoyland, finds it "all but certain" that the inscription refers to the historical Umar, adding, "and yet the absence of any epithet or title is striking". Graphites may be susceptible to alternative readings due to the erasure of letters by environmental influences and inadequate writing system, and unless specifically stated, dating can only be done approximately based on the "writing style". Other possible mentions in inscriptions from that era could be read as Amr or Usthman Ibn Affan include: an inscription at Tayma, Saudi Arabia, and one at the Alia Palace archaeological site in Makkah Province, Saudi Arabia.
Coins: Unlike known historical figures such as Ibn Zubayr and Mu'awiya I who lived during this period, there are no coins minted in the name of these caliphs that could be evidence of political hegemony. The coins in circulation during the specified period contain two types of designs:
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