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Sardinian pika[1]
Temporal range: Middle Pleistocene - Holocene 0.8–0.0002 Ma
↓
Skeleton
Life restoration
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Lagomorpha
Family: †Prolagidae
Genus: †Prolagus
Species:
†P. sardus
Binomial name
†Prolagus sardus
(Wagner, 1829)
Synonyms

Prolagus corsicanus

The Sardinian pika (Prolagus sardus) is an extinct species of lagomorph that was endemic to the Corsica-Sardinia archipelago in the Western Mediterranean. It was the last surviving member of Prolagus, a genus of lagomorph with a fossil record spanning 20 million years once widespread throughout Europe during the Miocene and Pliocene epochs. Its closest living relatives are modern pikas (which all belong to the genus Ochotona), from which it is estimated to have diverged around 30 million years ago.

The abundance of remains suggests that the species was once common on the islands, probably forming a main prey item of the extinct Sardinian dhole. Evidence has been found indicating Sardinian pikas were consumed as food by the island's early inhabitants following human colonisation of the islands around 10,000 years ago. The species likely became extinct during the Roman occupation of the islands (sometime between around 400 BC to 600 AD) probably due to the introduction of invasive species, though it has been suggested that it may have survived until the 18th century on the island of Tavolara based on a written account, but this has alternately been argued to refer to brown rats.

Anatomy

[edit]

The full skeletal structure of the Sardinian pika was reconstructed in 1967, thanks to the numerous finds of bones in Corbeddu Cave, which is near Oliena, Sardinia. Some years later, from these remains, the same researchers led by the American paleontologist Mary R. Dawson were able to create a plaster reconstruction with good accuracy, and provide a thorough description of the skeleton's morphology published in 1969.[3] The Sardinian pika was probably much stockier and more robust than extant species of pikas, and it probably resembled a sort of cross between a large wild rabbit and a pika.[3] The first articulated skeletons of P. sardus were reported in 2016.[4]

Prolagus sardus weighed about 504–525 g (17.8–18.5 oz). This is more than its ancestor Prolagus figaro, which is the only other member of Prolagus that was found in Sardinia and weighed about 398–436 g (14.0–15.4 oz), and is larger than most mainland species of Prolagus.[5]

Compared to mainland species of Prolagus, P. sardus had larger and more hypsodont (high crowned) teeth.[6][7] The Sardinian pika experienced anagenic evolution, with an increasing body size and shifting dental morphology over time.[8]

Ecology

[edit]

Abundant fossil and subfossil remains of P. sardus are known from several localities across Corsica and Sardinia hint at the once broad geographical range of this Prolagus species: it lived from sea level up to at least 800 m (2,624 ft.)[9] in a variety of habitats (grasslands, shrublands).[10] Its morphology suggests that it was capable of traversing rocky terrain, and was probably a proficient jumper and capable of digging, but was not adapted for running.[3][11] The tooth hypsodonty has been suggested to have been an adaptation to an abrasive diet.[7] The abundance of mass accumulations of broken bones (bone beds) suggest that the population density was high.[11][12][9] A sample of Late Pleistocene specimens from Medusa Cave, Sardinia found that they had a high incidience rate of arthritis relative to extant lagomorphs. This is suggested to be the result of ageing due to having a longer lifespan than mainland lagomorphs.[13] Skeletochronology suggests that individuals of Prolagus sardus reached a lifespan of approximately 8 years, which is longer than mainland lagomorphs of equivalent size.[14]

During the Pleistocene, the Sardinian pika lived as part of a highly endemic island ecosystem where only a small number (~12) of terrestrial mammal were present, including the dwarf mammoth Mammuthus lamarmorai, the medium-sized deer Praemegaceros cazioti the shrew Asoriculus similis, the field-rat Rhagamys orthodon, the vole Microtus (Tyrrhenicola) henseli, the mole Talpa tyrrhenica and three species of otters (Algarolutra, Sardolutra and the giant Megalenhydris).[15] The Sardinian pika was likely preyed on by the two native species of terrestrial carnivores, a canine (the Sardinian dhole), and a mustelid (Enhydrictis galictoides) which were specialized for hunting small prey.[16][17] Other likely predators include birds of prey such as the endemic owl species Bubo insularis.[18]

Evolution and extinction

[edit]

The taxonomy of Prolagus has been the subject of controversy. It is either considered a member of the family Ochotonidae, which includes living pikas (which all belong to the genus Ochotona), or the only member of the family Prolagidae. A partial mitochondrial genome from Prolagus sardus suggests that Prolagus is more closely related to living pikas than to Leporidae, which contains rabbits and hares, with an estimated divergence between living pikas and Prolagus about 30 million years ago.[19]

Glires

Rodentia

Lagomorpha

Leporidae (rabbits and hares)

†Prolagus

Ochotona (living pikas)

The earliest species of Prolagus appeared in Europe during the Early Miocene, around 20 million years ago.[20] The ancestor of the Sardinian pika, Prolagus figaro, arrived in the Corsican-Sardinian microcontinent at the early-late Pliocene boundary around 3.6 million years ago, likely due to an emergent land connection with Italy caused by a sea level drop.[21][22] Amongst mainland species, the P. figaro-P. sardus lineage was previously thought to be most closely related to the species P. depereti known from the Pliocene of France, which was originally described as a subspecies of P. figaro. However, the oldest known remains of Prolagus from Sardinia, referred to as P. aff. figaro, show closer affinities to the species P. sorbinii, a species of Eastern European origin, which expanded westwards during the Messinian, the last stage of the Miocene, with well known remains from central Italy from the latest Miocene and early Pliocene.[22] The oldest unambiguous remains of Prolagus sardus date back from the Middle Pleistocene,[12] a time when both islands were periodically connected due to sea level changes. Reassessment of palaeontological data has shown that the distinction made by early authors between two contemporaneous taxa (P. sardus and P. corsicanus) is probably unfounded,[23][9] as the Sardinian pika exhibits only subtle anagenetic evolution of its anatomy and body size through time.[8]

Humans first arrived in Corsica-Sardinia around 10,000 years Before Present (BP).[24] The presence of Prolagus facilitated the establishment of the first human communities of the islands. Jean-Denis Vigne found clear evidence that the Sardinian pika was hunted and eaten by people. He found that many of the Sardinian pikas' limb bones were broken and burnt at one end, suggesting that this animal had been roasted and eaten by the Neolithic colonists of Corsica.[25]

The Sardinian pika became extinct in Sardinia sometime after 810 BC (based on radiocarbon dating), with records from Corsica suggesting that species survived there until sometime between 393 BC and the 6th century AD (overlapping with the period of Carthaginian and Roman Corsica).[24] Its extinction was possibly due to agricultural practices, the introduction of predators (dogs, cats and small mustelids) and ecological competitors (rodents, rabbits and hares).[26] Transmission of pathogens by rabbits and hares introduced to Sardinia and Corsica by the Romans may have also played a role in the species's extinction.[27] Other endemic small mammals like the shrew Asoriculus similis, the Tyrrhenian field rat, and the Tyrrhenian vole, probably also disappeared from Corsica and Sardinia around the same time.[28][24]

Potential historical references

[edit]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Sardinian pika

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from Grokipedia
The Sardinian pika (Prolagus sardus) was an extinct species of lagomorph in the family Prolagidae, endemic to the islands of (along with nearby smaller Mediterranean islands) in the western Mediterranean. This small, tailless resembled modern pikas but was an insular giant among lagomorphs, with a body mass estimated at 500–750 g based on analyses. It featured short limbs, a rounded body, and dental adaptations lacking a third lower molar, distinguishing it from typical rabbits and hares. The species evolved as part of a long-lived lineage within the genus , with fossils indicating its presence on from the Middle Pleistocene through the , representing the last surviving member of a once-widespread Eurasian group that dated back over 20 million years. Genetic studies using from Neolithic bones confirm its phylogenetic position as the sister taxon to the family Ochotonidae (modern pikas), with estimated around 30 million years ago. As a , it primarily fed on grasses and vegetation in open habitats such as grasslands and shrublands, exhibiting life-history traits adapted to insular conditions, including potentially extended lifespans and slower growth rates compared to continental relatives. Prolagus sardus became extinct during historical times, with the last reliable records from the late , though some populations may have persisted until the early . The primary causes were anthropogenic, including the introduction of non-native predators (such as foxes and cats), competing herbivores (like rabbits and hares brought by Romans), and possibly pathogens transmitted by these invaders, which disrupted the isolated island ecosystems. This extinction highlights broader patterns of insular vulnerability, where human-mediated invasions led to the loss of many endemic on Mediterranean islands. Fossil evidence from sites like Medusa Cave in reveals insights into its biology, including high rates of linked to aging and lifestyle factors in this long-lived .

Taxonomy and systematics

Classification

The Sardinian pika is scientifically known as Prolagus sardus (Wagner, 1829), originally described by German zoologist Johann Andreas Wagner in his publication on fossil mammals from . The species name reflects its endemic occurrence on the island of , with the type locality specified as , . Taxonomically, P. sardus is placed within the genus Pomel, 1853, which belongs to the order . The family assignment remains debated: it is traditionally classified in the monotypic family Prolagidae Gureev, 1964, distinct from the living pika family Ochotonidae Thomas, 1897, due to morphological traits such as the absence of a third lower molar and differences in dental structure. Recent molecular analyses, including studies from 2023, support its placement in the distinct family Prolagidae as a sister group to Ochotonidae, with deep genetic divergence highlighting close but independent affinities with modern pikas (Ochotona spp.) based on shared cranial and postcranial features. The genus represents an ancient lagomorph lineage that originated in the and was widespread across , , and during the , with over 20 described species. P. sardus is the sole surviving representative until its , while other continental species disappeared by the end of the , likely due to climatic changes and competition. Historical naming includes synonyms such as Lagomys sardus Wagner, 1829, reflecting early placements within the obsolete genus Lagomys (an old name for pikas), before the establishment of Prolagus.

Phylogenetic position

The phylogenetic position of Prolagus sardus, the Sardinian pika, has been a subject of debate within Lagomorpha, with molecular and morphological evidence placing it as a distinct, ancient lineage outside the modern pika genus Ochotona. Molecular clock analyses of partial mitogenomic data from Neolithic specimens indicate that P. sardus diverged from the Ochotona lineage approximately 30 million years ago during the Oligocene, supporting its status as an independent evolutionary branch rather than a direct relative of extant ochotonids. This divergence aligns with the revised geological separation of the Corsica-Sardinia microplate from the European mainland around 20–24 million years ago, which isolated early lagomorph populations and fostered endemic evolution. Recent ancient DNA studies, including a 2023 analysis of mitochondrial sequences from a 7,575–7,431 cal BP bone, have confirmed Prolagus forms a sister group to the family Ochotonidae with bootstrap support of 66–73%, and support elevation to its own family, Prolagidae, due to deep genetic divergence. Morphological comparisons further underscore P. sardus as a species retaining primitive traits characteristic of early . Osteological examinations reveal cranial features, such as certain incisor and auditory region structures, that are judged primitive for and differ from both Ochotona and leporids, indicating retention of basal characteristics from Eocene ancestors rather than derived specializations seen in modern pikas. These traits, including a of ochotonid and leporid-like elements in the , link Prolagus to stem ochotonids and highlight its role as the last surviving representative of diverse European endemic ochotonid lineages that persisted on the isolated Corsica-Sardinia . Such morphology supports the genetic evidence of an ancient split, positioning P. sardus as a key for understanding early lagomorph diversification.

Physical description

Morphology

The Sardinian pika (Prolagus sardus), an extinct lagomorph endemic to the Corsica-Sardinia archipelago, was a tailless with short limbs and a rounded body. It exhibited a body size notably larger than that of most extant pikas in the genus Ochotona. Adults weighed an estimated 504–525 grams, representing approximately a 20% increase in body mass compared to its precursor species P. figaro (398–436 grams) within the island's anagenetic lineage. This size exceeded the typical range for modern pikas (70–250 grams), reflecting insular typical of endemic island . In terms of build, P. sardus possessed a more massive and robust musculoskeletal system than extant pikas, with powerful limb muscles suited to its island environment. The morphology of its and limb bones indicated adaptations for jumping and enhanced maneuverability, distinguishing it from the generally less robust form of Ochotona species. Sexual dimorphism in P. sardus was minimal, consistent with patterns observed in extant lagomorphs, manifesting primarily as slight differences in body size between males and females. This limited dimorphism aligns with the low levels documented in the closely related genus Ochotona.

Adaptations

The dental structure of Prolagus sardus was characterized by larger and more (high-crowned) teeth compared to the low-crowned of modern pikas (Ochotona spp.), and lacked a third lower molar (m/3), allowing for efficient grinding of tough, abrasive vegetation prevalent in its Mediterranean island habitat. This enhanced tooth durability against wear from gritty plant material, representing an evolutionary response to insular dietary constraints where was poorer and more fibrous than on mainland environments. Skeletal features reflected adaptations for a rugged, terrain, with robust limbs enabling burrowing in hard soil and agile on cliffs and boulders. The and limb bones indicate powerful musculature, particularly in the hind limbs, which supported jumping, scrambling, and maneuvering in confined spaces, though the species lacked the build for sustained running. These traits facilitated shelter construction and escape in a landscape with limited open ground. Skull morphology, including a relatively spacious nasal consistent with ochotonid patterns. histology of long bones reveals life history traits such as rapid initial growth to weaning size, followed by delayed skeletal maturation and an extended lifespan of up to 8 years or more, contrasting with the shorter lifespans of continental lagomorphs and reflecting insular gigantism's influence on slower pacing. occurred around 1 year, balancing rapid early development with prolonged adulthood for resource-limited conditions.

Habitat and ecology

Distribution

The Sardinian pika ( sardus) was endemic to the Corsica-Sardinia archipelago in the western . This species occupied the islands from the Middle Pleistocene, approximately 800 thousand years ago, until historical times. During the Pleistocene, P. sardus was widespread across the archipelago as part of diverse insular faunas. By the , however, its range had contracted significantly, with populations persisting only in isolated refugia within and . Subfossil remains of P. sardus are abundant and primarily concentrated in northern , including the karstic fissure fillings of the Monte Tuttavista complex near Orosei and the Medusa Cave (Grotta Dragonara). Comparable sites occur across , reflecting the species' historical presence on both islands. The species inhabited primarily open vegetated areas such as meadows, steppes, and shrublands, alongside rocky outcrops that offered suitable conditions for foraging and shelter. It showed a strong preference for karstic terrains featuring crevices and fissures, which facilitated burrowing and protection from predators.

Behavior and diet

The Sardinian pika (Prolagus sardus) was a herbivorous lagomorph that primarily consumed terrestrial , including grasses, , and shrubs, as evidenced by stable of bone collagen from Mesolithic sites in showing δ¹³C values indicative of C₃ (mean δ¹³C ≈ -20.5‰). Its dental morphology, characterized by increased hypsodonty and enamel folding complexity, suggests adaptations to an abrasive diet typical of insular environments with coarser vegetation. Like modern pikas in the family Ochotonidae, P. sardus likely practiced coprophagy to maximize nutrient extraction from fibrous material, a common trait among lagomorphs for efficiency. Behavioral inferences for P. sardus draw from its close phylogenetic relation to extant pikas, indicating a diurnal or crepuscular activity pattern suited to avoiding predation in rocky and open terrains. The species exhibited and behaviors to navigate rugged habitats and evade threats, as supported by limb bone showing robust cortical structures for such locomotion. These habits align with the talus-dwelling lifestyle of modern pikas. As a key basal in the ecosystems of , P. sardus played a central ecological role by shaping vegetation dynamics through and serving as primary prey for endemic predators, including the (Cynotherium sardous) and various . assemblages indicate it dominated small faunas, comprising up to 80% of remains in some sites and influencing food webs as a cycler in low-diversity insular communities. Reproductive strategies of P. sardus involved delayed maturation, as revealed by bone growth data. histology shows pups were weaned at a large body size (approximately 55–60% of adult mass, or 375–425 g), with skeletal maturity reached around 3 years and a minimum of 8 years, indicative of a slow life-history pace with fewer but larger offspring to cope with insular resource constraints.

Evolutionary history

Origins

The Sardinian pika, Prolagus sardus, represents the terminal species in an endemic lagomorph lineage that colonized the Corsica-Sardinia microplate during the Early/Late boundary, approximately 3.6 million years ago. This ancestral arrival is attributed to Prolagus aff. figaro, derived from the mainland European P. sorbinii, which migrated westward from and reached likely via an emergent land connection facilitated by low sea levels during the transition. The colonization occurred after the microplate's tectonic separation from mainland in the early (around 21–15 million years ago), establishing genetic isolation that prevented further and set the stage for insular . The process leading to P. sardus involved anagenetic within the lineage, transitioning gradually from P. figaro (latest to late , ~2.6–0.8 million years ago) to P. sardus around the Middle Pleistocene boundary (~0.8 million years ago). This linear transformation, without , is evidenced by progressive morphological changes in dental and skeletal features, driven by the isolated environment. A key adaptation was , with P. sardus exhibiting a body mass of approximately 500–525 grams, a ~20–25% increase over the smaller P. figaro (~400 grams) and continental relatives like P. cf. calpensis (~320 grams), reflecting resource-limited insular conditions and reduced predation pressure. The P. sardus lineage persisted from the Middle Pleistocene through the , until its in historical times, underscoring the long-term stability of this anagenetic trajectory in the tectonically isolated Corsica-Sardinia system. This evolutionary development highlights how Miocene tectonic events and subsequent colonization shaped a unique lagomorph radiation, distinct from mainland ochotonid phylogenies.

Fossil record

The fossil record of Prolagus sardus is characterized by abundant subfossil remains primarily recovered from karstic caves and fissures across , including sites such as Grotta del Campanaccio in southwestern Sardinia and Medusa Cave in the northwest, where thousands of specimens have been unearthed. These deposits have provided a wealth of material spanning the Middle Pleistocene to the , with the earliest unambiguous fossils of P. sardus dating to approximately 0.8 million years ago, marking its emergence as a distinct endemic derived from ancestral forms like P. figaro. The bones and teeth preserved in these anaerobic cave environments are often in excellent condition, facilitating detailed morphological analyses of cranial and postcranial elements for reconstructing body size, locomotion, and dietary inferences. A seminal osteological study by Dawson (1969) utilized disarticulated skeletons from multiple Sardinian localities to describe the full skeletal , highlighting robust forelimbs and manus features suggestive of behaviors alongside adaptations for rocky terrains. Fossils of P. sardus commonly co-occur with remains of other endemic Quaternary mammals, such as the giant deer Praemegaceros cazioti and the Sardinian fox Vulpes ichnusae, in assemblages from sites like the Monte Tuttavista fissures, illustrating its role within a diverse insular ecosystem dominated by flightless birds, dwarfed ungulates, and specialized carnivores. Recent paleontological work, including a 2021 study by Moncunill-Solé et al. on postcranial scaling from Early Pleistocene to Holocene specimens, has further corroborated these digging adaptations through quantitative analysis of long bone proportions, emphasizing enhanced forelimb robustness relative to hindlimbs compared to continental lagomorphs.

Extinction

Timeline

The Sardinian pika (Prolagus sardus) remained widespread and abundant across and adjacent islands during the late Holocene, with radiocarbon-dated remains from sites such as Su Guanu Cave confirming its presence until at least 810 BC (2760 cal BP). The species underwent a gradual decline thereafter, with the latest reliable archaeological evidence from dating to around 50 AD (2000 cal BP) at Corbeddu Cave. While there is a complete absence of remains in post-Roman period layers across the archipelago, suggesting local extirpations by , the overall extinction likely occurred later during historical times. Disputed historical accounts suggest possible late survival on , where naturalist Francesco Cetti described abundant "giant rats" with extensive burrows in 1774, potentially referring to lingering populations of the . No verified skeletal specimens exist after the Roman period, but the species is classified as Extinct by the IUCN based on the lack of confirmed modern records.

Causes

The extinction of the Sardinian pika (Prolagus sardus) was driven primarily by anthropogenic factors following human colonization of Sardinia and Corsica around 6000 BC during the Neolithic period. Early agricultural expansion, including slash-and-burn practices and the clearance of forests for cultivation and pastoralism, led to widespread habitat fragmentation and loss. The species, which inhabited diverse environments from woodlands to shrublands, experienced reduced availability of cover and forage as Mediterranean maquis and oak forests were converted to arable land and grazing areas. Archaeological evidence from Neolithic sites indicates that these activities intensified over millennia, progressively isolating pika populations and limiting their dispersal. Direct exploitation compounded habitat degradation, with P. sardus serving as a targeted food resource. Burnt bone remains in numerous prehistoric and historic archaeological deposits across the islands demonstrate systematic , particularly during the and subsequent periods when populations grew. This predation pressure likely depleted local populations, especially given the pika's relatively low reproductive rate adapted to insular conditions. further accelerated the decline, especially after Roman colonization around the . Domestic predators such as dogs (Canis familiaris) and cats (Felis catus), along with invasive like black rats (Rattus rattus), arrived via trade and settlement, acting as novel predators and competitors for burrows and food. Larger invasives, including European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and hares (Lepus spp.), introduced during the Roman era, overlapped ecologically with P. sardus, intensifying resource competition and potentially transmitting pathogens that exacerbated mortality rates. assemblages show a sharp decline in pika abundance coinciding with these introductions, underscoring their role in disrupting the endemic . Ongoing activities in historical periods may have contributed to final . While Holocene climatic fluctuations, such as increased aridity in the mid-, may have stressed insular ecosystems, their contribution to the pika's appears minor. Radiocarbon-dated remains indicate persistence through earlier environmental shifts, with final disappearances aligning more closely with intensified human activities than natural variability.

Historical accounts

Ancient references

The Greek historian , writing in the 2nd century BCE, provided one of the earliest potential textual references to the Sardinian pika (Prolagus sardus) in his Histories. He described an animal inhabiting , locally known as the kyniklos or "dog-rabbit," noting that it appeared like a small from afar but, when captured, behaved aggressively by biting like a rather than attempting to escape. This account aligns with observations of the pika's vocalizations, burrowing habits, and defensive responses, leading scholars to interpret it as a likely description of P. sardus, which was endemic to the Corsica-Sardinia . Archaeological excavations in have uncovered substantial evidence of human interaction with the Sardinian pika during the Nuragic period (ca. 1800–238 BCE), the culture characterized by distinctive stone towers known as nuraghi. Burnt bones of P. sardus have been identified in multiple settlement sites, such as those analyzed in archaeobotanical and zooarchaeological studies, indicating that the animal was systematically hunted, cooked, and consumed as part of the local diet. These remains, often found alongside those of other wild resources like deer and , highlight the pika's role in supplementing subsistence economies reliant on and early . Similar faunal evidence extends to Phoenician-influenced sites in from the late Nuragic phase (ca. 9th–6th centuries BCE), where P. sardus bones appear in domestic contexts, further attesting to its exploitation as a food resource amid increasing Mediterranean trade and colonization. The abundance of such remains underscores the pika's cultural significance as a readily available, small-game protein source for communities, potentially contributing to localized overexploitation patterns. During the Roman period (from the BCE onward), P. sardus bones become notably absent from archaeological strata across , signaling a sharp decline in the species' population and possible by this era. While direct textual mentions are lacking, some interpretations propose indirect allusions in Pliny the Elder's (ca. 77 CE) to unusual Sardinian fauna, though these remain speculative without conclusive identification.

Modern descriptions

In 1774, Italian naturalist Francesco Cetti documented the presence of "giant rats without tails" on the island of Tavolara, off the northeastern coast of , noting that their burrows were so profuse that the terrain resembled a . This description, from his Storia naturale di Sardegna, has been proposed as evidence for a late survival of the Sardinian pika (Prolagus sardus), as the tailless form aligns with known lagomorph morphology rather than typical . However, the account's reliability remains contested, with scholars arguing that Cetti likely observed introduced brown rats (Rattus norvegicus), whose juveniles lack prominent tails and exhibit burrowing behavior. In 1829, German zoologist Rudolf Wagner provided the first formal scientific description of the species, naming it Prolagus sardus based on subfossil remains excavated from Sardinian caves. Wagner highlighted its superficial resemblance to rabbits in body size and proportions but emphasized pika-like traits, such as reduced ears and a build adapted to rocky terrains, distinguishing it from both leporids and ochotonids. This naming drew on earlier fragmentary reports but established P. sardus as a distinct endemic lagomorph, prompting further interest in its potential persistence into historical times. Throughout the , naturalists debated the authenticity of alleged sightings potentially attributable to the Sardinian pika, with figures like Johann Friedrich Gmelin questioning whether accounts stemmed from misidentifications of introduced European hares (Lepus europaeus) or other small mammals. These discussions often centered on ambiguous traveler narratives from Sardinia's coastal islands, where environmental changes and human introductions complicated verification. The species became extinct during historical times, with the last reliable records from the late and some populations possibly persisting until the early . While no confirmed physical specimens exist from after 1774, historical accounts suggest survival into the Enlightenment era, though re-evaluations often attribute later reports to misidentifications of . Radiocarbon analyses of subfossil bones indicate presence through the , with extinction linked to anthropogenic factors in historical periods rather than solely Neolithic impacts.

References

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