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Hwando
Hwando
Hwando
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Hwando (Chinese: 丸都; pinyin: Wandu) is a mountain fortress of the ancient Korean[1] kingdom of Goguryeo, built to protect Goguryeo's second capital, Gungnae. It is located in present-day Ji'an city of the province of Jilin, China.

Key Information

The fortress is located 2.5 km west of Ji'an, Jilin province in Northeast China, near the North Korean border. It is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Capital Cities and Tombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom, together with nearby Gungnae City and the Ohnyeosan City, because of its historical importance and exceptional architecture.[2]

History

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In 3 CE, King Yuri of Goguryeo moved the capital to Gungnae Fortress, and built the Wina Rock fortress.[3] Gungnae Fortress, the capital, was a fortress on Amnok River's plain, while "Wina Rocks fortress" (위나암성; 尉那巖城) was a fortified city in the mountain which was later renamed to Hwando by King Sansang of Goguryeo.

Goguryeo consolidated its power and began to threaten the Chinese commanderies, under the nominal control of Wei. In 242, Dongcheon attacked a Chinese fortress near the mouth of the Amnok River leading to the Goguryeo–Wei War; in 244, Wei invaded Goguryeo and sacked Hwando.[4]

Goguryeo ended China's presence on the Korean peninsula by conquering the Lelang commandery in 313. However, Goguryeo faced opposition by the proto-Mongol Xianbei who had conquered northern China; the Murong clan of the Xianbei attacked Goguryeo and sacked Hwando in 341, capturing thousands of prisoners to provide cheap labor. The Xianbei also devastated Buyeo in 346, accelerating Buyeo migration to the Korean peninsula. Goguryeo, though temporarily weakened, would soon recoup and continue its expansion.[4]

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  • Entrance plaque
    Entrance plaque
  • Detail of a wall
    Detail of a wall
  • Remains of a guard tower
    Remains of a guard tower
  • Goguryeo tombs near Hwando
    Goguryeo tombs near Hwando

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Hwando

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Hwando (환도) is a traditional Korean single-edged sword that served as the standard military sidearm during the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910). Characterized by its lightweight design and practical features, the hwando typically features a gently curved or straight blade measuring around 70 centimeters in overall length, making it suitable for one-handed use by armored soldiers carrying additional weapons like bows and shields. Its scabbard includes distinctive rings (hwan) for securing cords or enabling quick detachment, reflecting an emphasis on battlefield efficiency and portability. Emerging as an evolution of earlier Korean blade designs influenced by Goryeo-era cavalry traditions and continental metallurgy from China and Mongolia, the hwando became the primary sidearm for most Joseon soldiers, integrating seamlessly into combined-arms warfare. It played a central role in the dynasty's codified martial arts curriculum, as detailed in influential texts such as the Muyejebo (1598), Muyesinbo (1759), and Muye Dobo Tongji (1790s), which standardized techniques like native sword methods (Bonguk Geom) and short sabre forms (Yedo). A specialized variant, the byeolungeom, was reserved for the king's guard officials, underscoring its status in elite military contexts. The hwando's design exemplifies Korean sword craftsmanship, blending local proportions with practical adaptations for close-quarters combat, and it remained a symbol of military identity until the late 19th century, when gunpowder weapons began to supplant edged arms. Surviving examples, now housed in museums, highlight its cultural significance as a bridge between ancient ring-pommel swords and Korea's martial heritage.

Etymology and Terminology

Name Origin

The term "Hwando" derives from the Hanja characters 環刀 (hwan-do), where "hwan" (環) signifies "ring," specifically alluding to the metal ring on the scabbard used for attaching a cord to secure the sword to the waist. This etymological explanation is detailed in the 1813 military manual Yungwon Pilbi (戎垣必備), which describes the hwando as a blade equipped with a sheath featuring such a ring for practical wear. The name thus emphasizes the functional design element that distinguished it from other Korean swords. The earliest historical reference to the hwando appears in the Goryeosa (高麗史), the official history of the Goryeo Dynasty, recording that in April 1277, during the reign of King Chungnyeol, 1,000 hwando were produced in Chungju by order of the king to present to a Yuan Dynasty envoy led by Liu Hong and Holno. This mention establishes the term's usage in a diplomatic and military context during the late Goryeo period, when Korea was under significant Mongol influence from the Yuan. From the Goryeo Dynasty through the subsequent Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910), the term "hwando" evolved in Korean phonetic pronunciation while retaining its core Hanja form and meaning, shifting contextually from a specialized tribute item to the standard sidearm for Joseon military personnel. No major semantic alterations occurred, though its association with the scabbard ring persisted as a defining feature in Joseon-era texts and artifacts. The hwando, as the primary military sword of the Joseon dynasty, shares its nomenclature with a range of variant terms documented in historical Korean martial texts, reflecting distinctions in design, usage, and context. A key related term is "yedo" (예도), denoting a sharp single-edged saber adapted from traditional Joseon sword methods (Joseon sebeop), often used in sequential combat forms as a close equivalent to the hwando for infantry melee. Similarly, "jedokgeom" (제독검) refers to a specialized admiral's sword for naval officers, incorporating hwando-like features in ceremonial and tactical applications. Other contextual terms include "ssangsudo" (쌍수도), a double-handed technique originally for longer sabers but later shortened to match hwando dimensions for versatile one- or two-handed use in battle. These distinctions appear in Joseon military manuals such as the Muyedobotongji (1790), which regulates sword types by length and function, with hwando standardized at approximately 90 cm for waist carry. In ceremonial contexts, broader regulatory naming in texts like the Gukjo-oryeui (late 18th century) employs "bogeom" (寳劍) for ritual treasure swords, differentiating symbolic implements from practical hwando while outlining protocol for their lengths and placement in court rites. Early references in the Munjong Sillok (1450s) further specify sword regulations, such as iron blades measuring around 85 cm (approximately 1.7 ja for infantry use), influencing later type classifications in military inventories.

History

Origins in Goryeo Dynasty

The hwando, a curved single-edged sword characteristic of Korean martial tradition, first emerged during the Goryeo dynasty (918–1392 CE), marking a shift from earlier straight-bladed designs toward more cavalry-oriented weaponry. This development was heavily influenced by Central Asian sabres introduced via the Mongol Yuan dynasty, following Goryeo's submission as a vassal state after the devastating invasions that concluded in 1259 CE. The Mongol conquests, spanning 1231 to 1259, compelled Goryeo to integrate elements of steppe warfare, including curved blades suited for mounted combat, as part of broader military and cultural exchanges under Yuan oversight. Early records of hwando production underscore this foreign integration. In April 1277, during the reign of King Chungnyeol (r. 1274–1308), Goryeo authorities ordered the fabrication of 1,000 hwando units as gifts for a Yuan dynasty envoy, as documented in the official dynastic history Goryeosa. This commission, dispatched under the supervision of official Yi Jang-mu, reflects the court's efforts to appease Mongol overlords while fostering local smithing capabilities influenced by Yuan techniques. Such diplomatic gestures were common in the post-invasion era, where Goryeo balanced vassalage with internal autonomy. [Goryeosa, Volume on King Chungnyeol's reign] Archaeological evidence from Goryeo sites further illuminates the hwando's nascent form and the evolution of its production. Excavations at Dongnae Citadel in Busan have yielded hwando fragments with distinctive ring-pommels and curved blades, dating to the late 13th century, showcasing early adoption of high-carbon steel folding methods borrowed from Chinese traditions as early as the Three Kingdoms period (late 5th century CE). Similarly, artifacts unearthed at Cheoin Fortress in Gyeonggi Province reveal angular blade backs and simple iron fittings, indicative of transitional forging practices that blended indigenous Korean ironworking with imported Central Asian motifs under Yuan patronage. These finds highlight how Goryeo artisans adapted foreign designs to local needs, laying the groundwork for the hwando's prominence in subsequent eras. From Goryeo to Joseon, the hwando saw refinements in blade curvature, transitioning from more pronounced curves suited to cavalry to straighter forms for infantry versatility.

Development in Joseon Dynasty

During the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910), the hwando evolved into the standardized primary sidearm for military forces, reflecting efforts to unify and regulate weaponry amid ongoing threats from northern nomads and internal reforms. Early regulations, documented in the Munjong Sillok (the annals of King Munjong's reign), specified blade lengths of 1.7 ja (approximately 51 cm) for infantry use and 1.6 ja (approximately 48 cm) for cavalry, ensuring compatibility with tactical needs while promoting mass production through government armories. These standards built upon Goryeo-era influences but emphasized practicality for Joseon's Confucian bureaucracy and standing army. The hwando's role became particularly prominent during the Imjin War (1592–1598), when Japanese invasions exposed deficiencies in Joseon weaponry against longer samurai blades. This conflict influenced post-war military manuals like the Muyedobotongji (1790), which codified hwando techniques for combined arms tactics, incorporating elements of Japanese swordsmanship. Hwando production and use persisted through the dynasty's later centuries, with mid-Joseon examples showcasing refined lamination and tempering for durability. Mid-Joseon hwando often featured tti-don (blood grooves) for added functionality. Limited exports of hwando occurred during diplomatic trade missions to Ming China and beyond, serving as symbols of Joseon craftsmanship in bilateral exchanges.

Design and Construction

Blade Features

The Hwando blade is characterized by its single-edged design with a gentle curve or straight profile, optimized for use as a lightweight sidearm in Joseon-era combat. This configuration allowed for quick draws and effective slashing while worn at the waist, often alongside bows and shields. Blade lengths varied across periods, typically measuring around 70 cm overall during much of the Joseon dynasty (1392–1910), though examples from the Imjin War era (1592) extended up to 90 cm to adapt to battlefield demands, and late Joseon variants shortened to approximately 50 cm for greater portability. These dimensions were regulated in historical Joseon texts to standardize military equipment. Forged from high-carbon steel using traditional methods, the blade lacked fullers (hyuljo) in most surviving examples, contributing to its robust yet slender build. Partial heat treatment produced faint hamon-like patterns along the edge, enhancing hardness without compromising flexibility, while the back edge featured angular ridges akin to the Japanese katana's shinogi for added structural integrity. Cross-sections varied, including triangular, pentagonal, and hexagonal forms for different purposes. Early Joseon blades exhibited pronounced curvature, evolving toward straighter profiles in later periods, with tips showing ambiguous yokote boundaries distinct from Japanese counterparts.

Hilt, Guard, and Scabbard

The hilt of the Hwando was constructed primarily from wood, often reinforced for grip and durability through wrapping with materials such as crossed leather, shark skin, or hemp cloth, or by applying lacquer directly to the wood surface. In some specimens, the hilt featured intricate carvings, such as elegant fretted foliated designs symbolizing longevity with motifs including the sun, moon, swans, and deer, while others were simpler, consisting of wood wrapped in enameled leather. A spring mechanism integrated into the hilt served as a basic locking system to secure the sword within the scabbard, preventing unintended release. The guard, or hand protection, varied in design but typically consisted of an iron plate to shield the user's hand from sliding onto the blade during use; examples include an octagonal iron plate or a perforated iron guard with conventional patterns. Cross-guards were employed in certain military variants for enhanced protection, as seen in the equipment of general Gwak Jae-u. The pommel contributed to the sword's balance and aesthetic, though specific attachments like tassels were sometimes added for ornamental purposes. The scabbard, known as geomjip, was generally made of wood covered in lacquered flaxen canvas or reinforced with hemp cloth and metal edging for longevity, with some examples mounted in copper gilt fittings matching the hilt's decorative style. A key feature was the attachment ring, or hwan, positioned on the scabbard to allow securing with cords or straps, a element reflected in the sword's nomenclature. In select cases, a collar (hwando magi or ho in) provided additional reinforcement at the mouth, and unique locking mechanisms like the binyeojang—a hairpin-like device inserted through a scabbard hole—ensured the blade remained firmly in place during movement. For wearing, the Hwando was suspended via attachments such as a tti-don belt or shoulder sling, with the hilt oriented backward relative to the body for cavalry mobility and quick drawing, positioning the scabbard forward to avoid interference with archery or riding. This configuration allowed soldiers to adjust the sword's angle freely while hanging from a strap at the waist or side.

Usage

Military Applications

The hwando served primarily as a one-handed sidearm for Joseon Dynasty soldiers, employed in close-quarters combat following initial engagements with ranged weapons such as bows, spears, and firearms, where battles often involved cavalry charges and infantry formations dominated by archery and polearms. Its lightweight design and single-edged blade facilitated quick strikes, defensive parries, and follow-up attacks in chaotic melee situations, complementing shields held in the off-hand to block incoming blows while allowing rapid transitions back to archery. This role positioned the hwando as a secondary weapon for shock assaults and personal defense when primary arms were ineffective or discarded, emphasizing efficiency in split-second decisions amid armored infantry clashes. During the Imjin War (1592–1598), the hwando saw adaptations to counter Japanese katana tactics, with blade lengths extended to about 90 cm for greater reach in prolonged close combat after arquebus volleys and cavalry encirclements, enabling Joseon forces to engage invading swordsmen more effectively in infantry rushes. Influenced by Ming Chinese manuals from Qi Jiguang, Joseon troops incorporated captured Japanese fencing styles like kage-ryū, training in two-handed grips for powerful cuts covering a 5-meter radius, defensive retreats, and jumps to evade spearmen, which were formalized in early manuals such as the Muyejebo (1598) with 15 jangdo (long saber) postures focused on linear advances and counters. These techniques, practiced with leather-wrapped wooden swords (pigeom) before live partner applications, linked swordplay to grappling and fist methods if weapons were lost, enhancing versatility in battlefield chaos. In later Joseon periods, manuals like the Muyedobotongji integrated hwando techniques with early firearms training for combined-arms tactics. In cavalry operations, the hwando functioned as a supplementary weapon for pursuits and charges, worn with the hilt positioned backward behind the body and the sheath forward via adjustable straps, preventing interference with mounted archery while permitting swift over-the-shoulder draws for slashing at fleeing foes or in horseback melees. Joseon cavalry manuals like the Muyedobotongji (1790) documented twin-sword (ssanggeom) methods adapted from Silla traditions, involving paired hwando wielded on horseback for balanced, graceful strikes while maintaining equine control, alongside equestrian forms integrating swordplay with bow use across 24 martial disciplines. Joseon regulations specified shorter handle lengths (1 gwon 3 chi) for cavalry hwando to accommodate one-handed operation amid reins and bows, contrasting longer grips for infantry.

Ceremonial and Symbolic Uses

The hwando served significant ceremonial roles in the Joseon dynasty (1392–1910), where ornate variants symbolized authority and rank among military officers. High-ranking generals close to the king carried hwando with orange scabbards, while ordinary warriors used black ones, reflecting a structured hierarchy that aligned with Confucian principles of order and status. Decorative forms, such as the daemobogeom, featured hilts and scabbards carved from sea turtle shell and inlaid with precious metals and materials, prioritizing artistic and symbolic value over functionality; one such example is preserved at the Suwon Hwaseong Museum as a testament to elite ceremonial use. These variants, including influences from earlier designs like the hwandudaedo with its distinctive ring pommel, underscored the sword's role as a marker of martial prowess within the court's Confucian framework, where military symbols reinforced ethical governance and loyalty. Beyond the battlefield, hwando functioned as non-combat sidearms in administrative and parade contexts, adorning officers during formal processions and court duties to project authority without implying active warfare. In diplomatic rituals, they were exchanged as gifts to signify alliance and respect, a practice that highlighted cultural diplomacy in the Joseon era. This symbolic tradition persisted, as seen in a 2017 diplomatic gesture when Russian President Vladimir Putin returned a late Joseon hwando to South Korean President Moon Jae-in, representing mutual trust and the sword's enduring emblematic power. The hwando's ceremonial legacy extends to modern Korean military traditions, where replicas are worn by palace guards during official ceremonies at sites like Gyeongbokgung Palace, maintaining the sword's role as a symbol of national heritage and disciplined authority.

Cultural Significance and Legacy

In Korean Martial Arts

The hwando features prominently in Joseon-era martial arts manuals, such as the Muyesinbo (1759), where it is used in techniques emphasizing quick one-handed deployment and strikes suitable for armored soldiers. In historical ssangdo (twin sword) methods, practitioners wielded paired swords to perform synchronized cuts and defenses, simulating battlefield scenarios with enhanced mobility against multiple foes. Training emphasized the bonguk drawing method, with the hwando worn backward on the belt for rapid one-handed extraction followed by immediate strikes—a practice rooted in mid-Joseon adaptations influenced by Ming Chinese military tactics and Jurchen close-combat styles to counter irregular warfare. This approach developed proficiency in fluid transitions from draw to offense, incorporating forms that prioritize precision over power, such as diagonal cuts and defensive blocks integrated into dynamic footwork. In modern contexts, the hwando's historical techniques are preserved through the study of these Joseon manuals in historical martial arts reconstruction groups and some traditional taekwondo schools, ensuring its role in teaching integrated weapon handling and cultural heritage.

Modern Reproductions

High-quality reproductions of the hwando are crafted by contemporary Korean artisans, who utilize traditional forging techniques with high-carbon steel to recreate Joseon Dynasty designs. These replicas often feature hand-polished blades with a length of 73 cm and overall length of 101 cm, brass fittings including carved collars and blackened guards, and weights of approximately 1.1 kg—dimensions that may vary from historical examples for practical use. Interest in these modern hwando reproductions extends to martial arts communities and collectors globally, where they serve as training tools and display pieces that preserve Korean swordsmanship heritage. Exports of such replicas have reached international markets, sometimes inspiring adaptations in global sword-making, including hybrid designs that blend hwando elements with modern styles for enhanced functionality in practice. This collector demand underscores the sword's enduring appeal beyond Korea, with vendors offering variants suited for both historical reenactment and contemporary use. The hwando's cultural revival is further evident in its legacy within popular media, particularly through frequent depictions in Korean historical dramas that portray Joseon-era military and ceremonial scenes. A notable modern resurgence occurred in 2017, when a late Joseon hwando—measuring about 50 cm and gifted by Russian President Vladimir Putin to South Korean President Moon Jae-in—sparked renewed public and scholarly interest, leading to exhibitions of preserved examples in institutions like the National Folk Museum of Korea. These efforts highlight the sword's role in contemporary cultural narratives, bridging historical symbolism with today's appreciation for traditional craftsmanship.
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