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Channel surfing
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Channel surfing
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Channel surfing (also known as channel hopping or zapping) is the practice of quickly scanning through different television channels or radio frequencies to find something interesting to watch or listen to. Modern viewers, who may have cable or satellite services beaming down dozens if not hundreds or thousands of channels, are frequently channel surfing. It is common for people to scan channels when commercial broadcasters switch from a show over to running commercials.

The term is most commonly associated with television, where the practice became common with the wide availability of the remote control. The first published use of the term is November 1986, in an article by The Wall Street Journal.[1]

Viewers' propensity to channel surf was apparently a factor leading toward the current ATSC standard for terrestrial television, digital television in North America. An ATSC signal can be locked onto and start being decoded within about one second, while it can take several seconds to begin decoding a Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) signal.[citation needed]

Zappers

[edit]

Zappers are, according to media scholar Henry Jenkins, people who have a casual relationship with their televisions. Zappers do not remain on one channel for long, but continually skip from show to show, stopping for only a few minutes at a time on a particular channel.[2]

History

[edit]

Referred to in Henry Jenkins' book, Convergence Culture, published in 2006, describes individuals who "constantly flit across the dial—watching snippets of shows rather than sitting down for a prolonged engagement" (Jenkins 2006:75). More of a tendency than a defining characteristic, zappers can fluctuate from the habit, depending on what is on at any given time, personal feelings toward a show, amongst other variables. The concept was overstated in the 1990s when Phillip Swann "wrote in TV.com: How Television is Shaping Our Future: ‘Few viewers today can sit through an entire program without picking up the remote and checking out another channel . . . Today’s viewer needs constant gratification: If she’s not entertained or intrigued for any stretch of time, she will flip the dial'"[3] (Jenkins 2006:75).

Media implications

[edit]

After Initiative Media published its magazine The Initiative declaring that loyal fans are more valuable than zappers,[4] television networks attempted to combat the zapper by increasing the personal appeal of their television shows, converting a zapper into a loyal fan (Jenkins 2006:75). This has led to a movement to slow down the zapper. Reality television has been suggested to be this bridge from zapper to loyal fan, being "built up of 'attractions,' short, highly emotionally charged units that can be watched in or out of sequence" (Jenkins 2006:77). American Idol is one such show, as it is "designed to pull in every possible viewer and to give each a reason not to change the channel" (Jenkins 2006:77). This technique has been perfected in American Idol via the cliffhanger commercial breaks and ending, convincing viewers to "stay tuned following these messages" or watch the show the next time it airs (Jenkins 2006:77).

Zapping TV shows

[edit]

The format or genre was pioneered with the Italian tv show Blob, and was an instant great success. It was first broadcast on April 17, 1989, and shortly after adopted by CanalPlus in France with Le Zapping. Canal Plus will then spread the format to other EU countries.[5]

France

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Germany

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Italy

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  • Blob (Since April 1989)

Poland

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Spain

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See also

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References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Channel surfing

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Channel surfing, also known as channel hopping or zapping, is the practice of rapidly switching between television channels using a to sample different programs or avoid commercials. This activity became feasible with the invention of the first remote control in 1950, the wired "Lazy Bones" device developed by Radio Corporation, which allowed viewers to change channels from the comfort of their seats without manually adjusting the set. Subsequent wireless innovations, such as the 1955 Flash-Matic using photocells and the 1956 Space Command employing ultrasonic signals, further popularized the behavior by enabling effortless scanning across an expanding array of broadcast and later cable channels. The rise of channel surfing transformed viewing habits, particularly as the number of available channels proliferated from a handful in the mid-20th century to dozens via cable and in the , and eventually to hundreds in the 1990s and beyond. It introduced concepts like "," where viewers passively flip through content, often leading to fragmented spans and shorter program engagements. In the realm, channel surfing manifests as "zapping," the deliberate switching away from commercials, which poses significant challenges for broadcasters and advertisers by inflating perceived audience sizes through inflated ratings that fail to account for brief tune-ins. Studies indicate that zapping peaks at commercial breaks, with viewers motivated by ad avoidance, content dissatisfaction, or curiosity about alternatives, thereby influencing program scheduling strategies to minimize channel changes through cliffhangers and engaging transitions. Despite the advent of streaming services and on-demand viewing in the digital era, channel surfing persists in traditional linear television contexts, underscoring its enduring role in shaping media consumption patterns and the evolution of remote technologies toward more intuitive interfaces.

Definition and Terminology

Core Concept

Channel surfing refers to the practice of rapidly switching between television channels using a remote control to sample brief segments of programming in search of something engaging to watch. This behavior typically involves viewing short snippets—often just seconds or minutes—before moving on, distinguishing it from deliberate, extended consumption of a single show. Enabled primarily by the remote control, it allows viewers to navigate multichannel environments effortlessly, fostering an exploratory approach to television content. The term "channel surfing" originated in a Wall Street Journal article on November 10, 1986, which described the phenomenon as a response to the proliferation of options, likening the rapid channel changes to riding waves. It highlighted how viewers, particularly older consumers, were adapting to expanded prime-time selections by "blithely" flipping through channels. This captured the playful yet habitual nature of the activity in an era of growing TV abundance. Unlike passive viewing, where audiences commit to a full program or episode, channel surfing emphasizes active, impulsive engagement, often driven by curiosity or dissatisfaction with current content. It represents a form of media multitasking that prioritizes discovery over immersion, frequently interrupting sustained attention. Common scenarios include switching channels during commercial breaks to avoid advertisements, a practice known as "zapping" that poses challenges for broadcasters. Late-night browsing often involves aimless surfing through infomercials, reruns, and niche programming when options are limited. Family settings may trigger channel surfing amid disagreements over program selection, with one member dominating the remote and engaging in unnegotiated switching, reflecting broader dynamics in shared viewing. Channel surfing is closely synonymous with "zapping," which refers to the rapid changing of channels, often specifically to avoid advertisements during commercial breaks. Another synonym, "channel hopping," describes a similar practice of quickly scanning channels and is sometimes extended to radio listening, where it involves tuning through frequencies to find desired content. Variant terms include "surfing the dial," that denoted manual tuning of TV or radio dials to sample broadcasts. "" represents a related but more prolonged form of fragmented viewing, where individuals switch channels frequently over extended sessions without committing to a single program. Key distinctions exist among these terms: while zapping typically emphasizes intentional ad avoidance through swift channel changes, channel surfing encompasses broader exploratory sampling of content beyond just commercials. In contrast, "channel scanning" pertains to automated functions in television tuners that systematically search for available broadcast signals, rather than deliberate viewer-initiated behavior. The "surfing" in channel surfing draws from a metaphorical comparison to riding ocean waves, evoking the fluid navigation through sequential channels, with the term emerging in the late alongside proliferation. Similarly, "zapper" derives from the 's rapid, zap-like switching speed, often applied to both the device and the users who employ it for quick changes—known as zappers in viewer behavior studies.

Enabling Technologies

Remote Controls

The first wireless television , known as the Flash-Matic, was invented by engineer Eugene Polley in 1955 and used directed light beams from a flashlight-like device to trigger photocells on the TV set for basic functions like channel selection and . This innovation was followed in 1956 by Robert Adler's Space Command, an ultrasonic model often called the "," which transmitted high-frequency sound waves to control the television without line-of-sight limitations, though it was susceptible to interference from ambient noise. These early devices represented a shift from wired predecessors like 's 1950 Lazy Bones, but their high cost—approximately $100 for the Flash-Matic, equivalent to about $1,100 in 2025 dollars—limited initial adoption to affluent households. Ultrasonic remotes such as the Space Command remained the standard through the , with Zenith selling over 9 million units and integrating them into millions of sets. Widespread adoption accelerated in the late and with the transition to (IR) technology, which used modulated light pulses for more reliable, interference-free operation and smaller, battery-powered designs. This coincided with the rapid growth of , which increased available channels from a handful to dozens, driving sales as manufacturers bundled them with new TVs; adoption rates increased rapidly during the . Remote controls function by sending encoded IR or (RF) signals—IR being the most common—to the TV's receiver, enabling commands for channel up/down, volume, mute, and power without physical interaction. This "lazy" convenience allowed viewers to switch channels in seconds from the couch, fostering rapid, exploratory viewing habits rather than fixed programming. The devices profoundly impacted viewer behavior by enabling channel surfing, a practice of sequentially scanning channels that emerged prominently in the and transformed passive TV consumption into an active, fragmented experience. Sales boomed alongside multichannel expansion, with remote-equipped TVs rising from low adoption in the to nearly universal by the end of the , as the technology empowered "zappers" to curate content on demand. From these basic models, remotes evolved into universal variants in the , capable of controlling multiple devices like TVs, VCRs, and cable boxes through programmable codes and IR learning. Pioneering examples included Viewstar's 1980 cable converter remote, which handled extended channel banks, and later designs by Wozniak's company featuring macro functions for one-touch access to favorite channels or sequences. RF models also emerged for longer-range applications, though IR dominated due to its low cost and precision.

Channel Switching Standards

The ATSC (Advanced Television Systems Committee) standard, adopted in starting in 1995, facilitates relatively rapid channel changes in , typically around 1 second, due to its design optimizations for quick video stream acquisition. This performance stems from recommendations for intra-coded (I-) frames at intervals of at least 0.5 seconds, which enable efficient and minimal buffering delays during tuning. The standard's use of transport streams further supports sub-second transitions by limiting presentation delays to up to 1 second, making it well-suited for channel surfing behaviors. In contrast, the (Digital Video Broadcasting) standard, developed in during the , often results in slower channel transitions, averaging several seconds, primarily because of extended MPEG decoding and buffering processes. Zapping times in , for instance, can range from 200-500 milliseconds for initial signal acquisition but extend significantly due to time interleaving depths of up to 250 milliseconds and multi-frame interleaving that adds 1-2 seconds or more. These delays frustrate rapid surfing, as the system prioritizes robustness in mobile reception over instantaneous switching. Key technical differences between ATSC and DVB contribute to these variations in switching speed. ATSC employs modulation, a single-carrier approach with simpler and faster tuner lock times of approximately 10-20 milliseconds, paired with Reed-Solomon and trellis error correction for efficient acquisition. DVB, using coded (COFDM) with (QAM) variants, involves more complex multi-carrier processing, leading to tuner lock times of 100-200 milliseconds, along with Viterbi and Reed-Solomon error correction that enhances multipath resilience but prolongs overall lock and decoding. These factors, including differences in interleaving and , directly impact the ease of channel surfing. As of 2025, updates to the via have further enhanced channel switching performance through IP integration in hybrid broadcast systems, enabling lower latency and more seamless transitions compared to the original ATSC 1.0 by leveraging advanced compression and flexible modulation for faster data delivery. This evolution supports even quicker surfing experiences, particularly in over-the-air environments, while maintaining compatibility with legacy systems during the ongoing transition, with services now reaching over 80% of U.S. TV households as of late 2025.

Historical Development

Origins in the 1980s

Prior to the , television viewing in the United States was constrained by the limited availability of over-the-air broadcast signals, typically restricted to 3 to 7 VHF and UHF channels depending on geographic location and antenna quality. These channels, primarily the major networks (ABC, , ) plus local independents or public stations, required manual tuning via physical dials on the , often involving fine adjustments for clarity and frequent trips from the viewing position to the device itself. This cumbersome process made rapid or frequent channel changes highly impractical, discouraging the kind of spontaneous browsing that would later define channel surfing. The expansion of systems during the 1970s and accelerating into the 1980s fundamentally altered this landscape by delivering dozens of channels directly to households, with many systems capable of supporting 30 to 55 channels by the mid-decade. This proliferation, driven by and technological advancements in infrastructure, provided viewers with unprecedented variety, including specialized programming from emerging networks like and , which fragmented traditional broadcast dominance and encouraged exploratory viewing habits. Amid this boom, the term "channel surfing" was coined in a , 1986, Wall Street Journal article, describing how older consumers used remote controls to "channel-surfing blithely through the evenings" amid expanded prime-time options. Early analyses in the highlighted channel surfing—often termed "channel flipping" or "zapping"—as a response to fragmented programming schedules, where viewers sought instant gratification by rapidly switching channels during commercials or unengaging content. This practice was further enabled by the cultural shift toward technologies; the rise of VCRs in the late allowed users to pause live broadcasts, facilitating temporary channel exploration without missing content, though wireless remote controls in the 1980s greatly amplified the ease and frequency of surfing.

Expansion with Cable and Satellite TV

The expansion of during the and profoundly transformed viewing habits by vastly increasing channel availability, which in turn intensified channel surfing as audiences sought content amid abundant choices. In the United States, cable penetration surged from approximately 20% of households in 1980 to 60% by 1990, fueled by investments in infrastructure and the allure of expanded programming that went beyond the limited broadcast networks. This growth introduced premium channels like , which, although launched in 1972, proliferated in the as add-ons to basic packages, offering exclusive films, events, and original series that encouraged viewers to switch channels frequently for specialized content. By the early , the average cable system delivered dozens of channels, prompting more dynamic behaviors as households adjusted to this fragmented landscape. Satellite television accelerated this trend even further by delivering high channel counts to areas previously underserved by cable. DirecTV's launch on June 17, 1994, marked a pivotal moment, offering 75 digital channels with superior picture quality and enabling access for rural households without coaxial wiring, thus broadening the reach of multichannel TV nationwide. This influx of options fragmented audiences, leading to shorter attention spans per channel and more habitual surfing sessions, as viewers sampled diverse genres from to niche in real time. Technical standards for faster channel switching, such as those in digital satellite systems, supported this seamless exploration without significant delays. Globally, the proliferation of cable and services mirrored these shifts, spurring channel surfing across continents. In , Sky TV debuted on February 5, 1989, starting with four channels but rapidly scaling through satellite distribution; by 1998, its digital platform provided over 140 channels, saturating markets like the and with options that exceeded 100 by the early . Similarly, in , Star TV launched in 1991 as a pan-regional network with initial channels focused on English-language and sports programming, expanding to serve diverse audiences and contributing to systems boasting over 100 channels in key markets by the early . Nielsen reports from 2000 captured the behavioral impact in the , revealing the multichannel environment normalized rapid channel changes during routine viewing. This pattern underscored how cable and satellite expansions not only democratized access but also cultivated a more active, exploratory approach to worldwide.

Viewer Behavior

Profile of Zappers

Zappers, also known as channel surfers, represent a distinct category of television viewers characterized by their casual and nomadic engagement with content, frequently switching channels to sample brief snippets rather than committing to full programs. Media scholar describes them in his 2006 book as individuals who treat television as a background activity, often multitasking while viewing, and who "watch television" in a fragmented manner without forming long-term attachments to specific series. This behavior aligns with the term "zappers" as a for those who rapidly navigate channels, typically pausing for short durations before moving on. Demographically, zappers are predominantly younger viewers aged 18-34 and more likely to be , reflecting patterns observed in early on viewing habits. A 1985 study by Carrie Heeter and Bradley S. Greenberg, based on surveys of over 1,500 U.S. adults, profiled zappers as averaging around 30 years old—younger than non-zappers in their mid-40s—and noted a higher among males who use more interactively with remote controls. Subsequent analyses from the on fragmentation indicated that a substantial portion of U.S. viewers engaged in daily channel zapping, with younger demographics driving much of this activity amid the rise of cable proliferation. More recent data from the suggests that while younger viewers (18-34) remain prominent, zapping is increasingly common across ages in streaming contexts, with 83% of U.S. adults using streaming services as of mid-2025. These traits position zappers as heavy yet selective TV consumers, often using the medium as an accompaniment to other household tasks. In terms of habits, zappers typically dwell on a channel for 10-30 seconds during a surfing session, with modeled distributions showing a mean of about 10 seconds in zapping mode, escalating to higher rates during prime-time commercial breaks when avoidance of ads prompts quicker switches. This short-attention pattern underscores their exploratory approach, where television serves less as a focal activity and more as a dynamic, low-commitment entertainment option. As of 2025, the profile of zappers has evolved with the trend, where traditional pay TV subscriptions have declined sharply—with subscribers totaling approximately 50 million households as of Q1 2025, meaning over 82 million U.S. households without such subscriptions—but the behavior persists among live TV users, now facilitated by streaming services and apps that mimic channel surfing. Platforms like and Hulu + Live TV enable rapid channel navigation for cord-cutters seeking real-time content, maintaining zapping among the 18-34 demographic in hybrid viewing environments.

Motivations and Patterns

Channel surfing, also known as zapping, is primarily motivated by viewers' desires to avoid , discover appealing content, and evade advertisements. These drivers stem from psychological needs for and , where unengaging programming prompts rapid switches to maintain interest. For instance, annoyance with or disinterest in commercials often triggers zapping, as viewers seek more immediate entertainment value. Patterns of channel surfing reveal distinct rhythms, with zapping peaking during commercial breaks due to deliberate ad avoidance. Studies from the late indicate that channel switching increases by approximately 75% during these interruptions compared to program content, reflecting habitual evasion tactics. In multichannel environments, viewers exhibit looping , rapidly cycling through options—often switching within 10 seconds on average—to sample snippets, fostering a fragmented rather than linear viewing experience. Psychologically, channel surfing mirrors instant gratification seeking observed in scrolling, where quick content shifts provide dopamine-driven rewards and combat perceived monotony. This pattern correlates with reduced spans, particularly among digital natives accustomed to bite-sized media, as constant switching trains the to prioritize novelty over sustained focus. Research highlights these dynamics in evolving media contexts; ' 2006 book characterizes zappers as participants in fragmented viewing, sampling television snippets amid abundant choices rather than loyal program commitment. Recent observations, such as a 2024 report noting 72% of initiate content discovery via channel surfing, underscore its persistence despite streaming options.

Media and Industry Impacts

Effects on Advertising

Channel surfing, commonly referred to as zapping, substantially diminishes the effectiveness of traditional television advertising by enabling viewers to avoid commercials through rapid channel switching. Estimates from the mid-2000s indicate that approximately two-thirds of TV viewers either mute the sound, channel-surf, or skip commercials entirely during ad breaks, thereby reducing overall ad exposure. This behavior has compelled advertisers to adapt by producing shorter and more dynamic commercials, such as 15-second spots, which aim to deliver key messages quickly before viewers disengage. For instance, the rise in 15-second ads was partly driven by the recognition that longer formats are more susceptible to zapping, as viewers reach a threshold of tolerance after repeated exposures. The economic ramifications of zapping have been profound, particularly during periods of heightened channel proliferation. In the 1990s, the expansion of fragmented audiences across numerous channels, diluting the concentration of viewers per ad slot and prompting downward adjustments in TV advertising rates to reflect diminished reach. Broadcasters and advertisers experienced stagnating revenues for traditional network ads as cable options siphoned off viewership, with cable ad spending surpassing $3 billion by while broadcast figures plateaued. These shifts underscored how zapping exacerbated the challenges of audience retention in a multi-channel environment. Measuring zapping presents ongoing challenges for the industry, primarily addressed through data collected from set-top boxes that log channel changes in real-time during commercial pods. Such metrics reveal patterns of ad avoidance, with studies showing zapping rates varying by content and viewer demographics, though sparse occurrences—around 4.9% of viewers zapping per minute in some datasets—highlight its intermittent but impactful nature. This ad avoidance contributed to the broader phenomenon in the 2010s, as frustrated viewers migrated to streaming services offering greater control over content and fewer interruptions. By 2025, the transition to addressable advertising on streaming platforms has begun to alleviate some zapping-related losses in linear TV by allowing personalized ad targeting based on viewer data, thereby improving relevance and retention. However, linear television continues to face persistent surfing disruptions, as fragmented legacy systems limit the full implementation of these targeted strategies.

Programming Strategies

Television networks have employed various tactics to counteract channel surfing by designing content that captures and holds viewer attention from the outset. Cliffhangers, placed strategically before commercial breaks, create suspense to discourage zappers from switching channels during interruptions. Fast-paced editing, characterized by quick cuts and dynamic visuals, maintains momentum and reduces the likelihood of viewers disengaging. Serialized formats, particularly in , further enhance retention by building ongoing narratives that encourage continued viewing; for instance, Survivor (premiered 2000) utilized episode-ending cliffhangers and tribal council eliminations to hook audiences rapidly, contributing to its status as a pioneering serialized reality show. Genre shifts toward short-segment programming have also proven effective in retaining zappers, who often seek immediate gratification. broadcasts and highlight segments deliver concise, high-energy content that aligns with brief attention spans, minimizing opportunities for channel changes. Complementing this, "appointment viewing" strategies cultivate long-term loyalty by scheduling must-see events at fixed times, fostering habitual tuning-in and social discussion; live events like award shows or premieres exemplify this approach, drawing dedicated audiences despite temptations. Data-driven approaches in the , informed by DVR analytics, emphasized the critical first moments of a program to combat high initial drop-off rates associated with zapping. Producers responded by prioritizing teaser openings or cold opens—brief, intriguing prologues that precede the main titles—to hook viewers within seconds and prevent early exits. As of 2025, programming strategies have evolved with hybrid live and streaming formats, particularly in sports, incorporating interactive anti-zap features to boost engagement. Platforms now offer multi-angle views, allowing viewers to select perspectives such as player cams or referee angles, which personalize the experience and reduce incentives to switch feeds.

Zapping Formats in Television

Early Examples

One of the earliest television programs explicitly designed around the concept of channel zapping emerged in with Blob, which debuted on on April 17, 1989. Created by Marco Giusti and Enrico Ghezzi under the direction of Angelo Guglielmi, the show presents a daily montage of short clips drawn from television snippets, film excerpts, advertisements, and other broadcast material, often juxtaposed to create ironic or surreal commentary on . This format directly emulated the fragmented experience of viewers rapidly switching channels, transforming passive surfing into an active, curated narrative that highlighted the absurdities of television content. Blob has remained a staple on , airing weekdays and evolving into one of 's longest-running programs, with recent episodes consistently attracting around 1 million viewers. Following closely on this innovation, saw the launch of Le Zapping on Canal+ starting September 1, 1989, which quickly adopted and adapted the zapping aesthetic for a broader audience. The program compiles highlights from domestic and international broadcasts, including , , and viral moments, presented in a fast-paced sequence that often carries a satirical edge by underscoring the ridiculousness or timeliness of the selected clips. Running in clear (unencrypted) slots for accessibility, Le Zapping endured for nearly three decades until July 2, 2016, becoming a cultural touchstone for French viewers seeking a distilled overview of global television without committing to full programs. Its structure reinforced the zapping phenomenon by packaging diverse "zaps" into a cohesive, entertaining digest that mirrored the impulsive nature of browsing. These pioneering shows drew conceptual inspiration from the growing prevalence of multichannel viewing in the late , where remote controls enabled quick channel changes, but they elevated zapping from a viewer habit to a programmatic form. In the , precursors appeared in minor experiments during the decade, such as MTV's high-energy format featuring rapid switches between music videos and VJ segments starting in 1981, which anticipated zapping's visual rhythm without constituting a dedicated compilation program. By contrast, Blob and Le Zapping formalized the approach as standalone content, influencing subsequent media experiments by demonstrating how curated fragmentation could engage audiences accustomed to .

International Adaptations

In , the format evolved with Zapp, a media magazine program produced by (NDR) for the ARD network, which premiered on April 14, 2002. The show features youth-oriented segments compiling clips from and radio, emphasizing media critique, journalism ethics, and pop culture analysis through reports, interviews, and behind-the-scenes explorations. Its fast-paced structure mirrors channel surfing by rapidly shifting between diverse media topics, often highlighting trends and issues relevant to younger audiences. Spain's Zapeando, launched on La Sexta on November 18, 2013, represents a more interactive adaptation, featuring live panel discussions where hosts and comedians "zap" through real-time clips from national and international channels. Produced by Globomedia, the 60-minute daily show employs a humorous, witty tone to dissect television anecdotes, using video montages, reactions, and guest appearances from media professionals to critique programming and pop culture. These European adaptations share common traits, including a predominantly satirical tone that pokes fun at media excesses, short segments typically under five minutes to mimic rapid channel changes, and tailoring to local contexts such as public broadcasting critiques in or commercial satire in . By 2025, many such programs, including Zapp and Zapeando, have been digitized for online streaming via platforms like ARD Mediathek and La Sexta’s website, extending their reach beyond traditional broadcasts. Coverage of non-European examples remains limited; Japan's brief experiments with zapping-inspired variety shows in the 2000s, such as segments on networks like Fuji TV, were underdeveloped and did not lead to sustained formats.

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  59. https://www.svgeurope.org/blog/headlines/sports-broadcast-innovations-how-emerging-technologies-are-transforming-live-sports-production-and-fan-engagement/
  60. https://www.teche.rai.it/2019/04/17-aprile-89-puntata-blob/
  61. https://www.telecorriere.it/auditel-ascolti-tv-martedi-11-novembre-2025-vittoria-sgarbi-rianima-bruno-vespa-4-232mila-spettatori-il-paradiso-delle-signore-segna-una-delle-migliori-performance-da-inizio-sta/
  62. https://thetvdb.com/series/20-years-zapping
  63. https://www.connexionfrance.com/magazine/learning-french-what-does-zapper-mean-and-when-should-it-be-used/691607
  64. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-12-27-ca-956-story.html
  65. https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1039883/
  66. https://www.ndr.de/fernsehen/sendungen/zapp/index.html
  67. https://globomedia.es/en/production/Zapeando
  68. https://www.lasexta.com/programas/zapeando/
  69. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qP4ULHFgz7c
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