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A virtual private network (VPN) service is a proxy server marketed to help users bypass Internet censorship such as geo-blocking and users who want to protect their communications against user profiling or MitM attacks on hostile networks.

A wide variety of entities provide VPN services for several purposes. Depending on the provider and the application, they do not always create a true private network. Instead, many providers simply provide an Internet proxy that uses VPN technologies such as OpenVPN or WireGuard. Commercial VPN services are often used by those wishing to disguise or obfuscate their physical location or IP address, typically as a means to evade Internet censorship or geo-blocking.

Providers often market VPN services as privacy-enhancing, citing security features, such as encryption, from the underlying VPN technology. However, when the transmitted content is not encrypted before entering the proxy, that content is visible at the receiving endpoint regardless of whether the VPN tunnel itself is encrypted for the inter-node transport. On the client side, configurations intended to use VPN services as proxies are not conventional VPN configurations. However, they do typically utilize the operating system's VPN interfaces to capture the user's data to send to the proxy. This includes virtual network adapters on computer OSes and specialized "VPN" interfaces on mobile operating systems. A less common alternative is to provide a SOCKS proxy interface.

In 2025, 1.75 billion people used VPNs. By 2027, this market has been projected to grow to $76 billion.[1] As of 2022, recommendation websites for VPNs tended to be affiliated with or even owned by VPN service providers, and VPN service providers often make misleading claims on their products.[2]

Reasons for use

[edit]

While research on user behavior and motivations for using VPNs is relatively limited compared to technical literature,[3][4] studies generally find that users are motivated by concerns over security and privacy,[5][4] particularly protection against hackers.[6][7] In contrast, a study of 349 college students found that students were more likely to use VPNs to access entertainment content than for privacy-related reasons.[5] Another study of 90 technically savvy users reported that those motivated by privacy concerns, rather than by practical needs such as accessing geo-blocked content, were more likely to continue using VPNs over time.[4] Surveys have also found that users tend to distrust free VPN services and express concern about providers collecting or selling their data.[6][5]

VPN usage has also been observed to increase in response to content restrictions,[8][9] social media taxes,[10][11] and the implementation of age verification laws.[12]

Accessing geo-restricted content

[edit]

VPNs allow users to bypass regional restrictions by hiding their IP address from the destination server and simulating a connection from another country.[citation needed]

Improving privacy on public Wi-Fi

[edit]

Where public Wi-Fi networks do not provide isolated encryption for each connected device, VPN services can provide a certain level of protection. When in use, potential eavesdroppers on the network can only observe that a connection to the VPN server is made by a user's device.[13] As of June 2025, however, approximately 98% of human-generated internet traffic was encrypted using TLS through the HTTPS protocol;[14] when TLS is used, network eavesdropping can only point out the IP addresses or hostnames a user is connecting to. Interception of network requests by a bad actor in the form of a Man-in-the-middle attack will most likely result in a certificate warning in being displayed in the user's browser.[15]

SSL stripping, the practice of downgrading a connection to unencrypted HTTP,[16][17] doesn't always result in a browser warning,[citation needed] although this has been partly mitigated by the implementation of HTTP Strict Transport Security.[18][19]

Improving privacy

[edit]

Activists and journalists working in restrictive or authoritarian regions can use VPNs to help maintain anonymity and protect sensitive communications.[20][21]

By geographical region

[edit]

As of 2025, four of the top six countries of VPN adoption rates from 2020 through the first half of 2025 were in the Middle East: UAE #1, Quatar #2, Oman #5 and Saudi Arabia #6 [22] Aside from bypassing a block of content it is thought that bypassing of restriction of voice over internet protocol (VoIP) services,like WhatsApp, Skype, and FaceTime are motivating factors.[22]

Criticism and limitations

[edit]

Research has generally found that non-specialist users often have flawed mental models of VPNs and misunderstand the extent of the protection they provide.[6][5][7] Such misconceptions may persist even among active VPN users.[7]

Most users discover VPN services through review websites,[6][4] which can be influenced by commercial incentives, with some relying on paid reviews and auctioning off the top review spot.[6]

Users are commonly exposed to misinformation on the VPN services market, which makes it difficult for them to discern fact from false claims in advertisements.[23] According to research by Consumer Reports, 12 out of 16 surveyed service providers had poor privacy and security practices and also made hyperbolic claims.[24] The New York Times has advised users to reconsider whether a VPN service is worth their money.[25] VPN services are not sufficient for protection against browser fingerprinting.[26] The provider may log the user's traffic, although this depends on the individual company.{{cn]}} Users can still be tracked through tracking cookies even if the user's IP address is hidden.[citation needed]

A VPN service is not in itself a means for good Internet privacy. The burden of trust is simply transferred from the Internet service provider to the VPN service provider.[27][28]

Legality

[edit]
Further information: VPN blocking

China

[edit]

In China, unlawful use of VPNs may result in criminal prosecution under the relatively obscure Supreme People’s Court guidelines: the Criminal Information Technology System Security Offense Adjudicative Guidelines [29] and the Damage to Telecommunications Market Integrity Adjudicative Guidelines [30].

According to the guidelines, however, the simple use of typical VPN tunnels is not inherently unlawful because it does not achieve the elements of a computer crime, i.e. intrusion or unlawful control of a computer.[29] VPN providers themselves can be prosecuted because providing a type of VPN in a way that severely disrupts the telecommunications market constitutes the offense of unlawful business operations.[30] Additionally, if a VPN is used to commit illegal activities, then its provision could fall under aiding and abetting a crime. This was the logic applied by Chinese police in the widely publicized case involving a Chinese programmer who was penalized on grounds he used an unapproved international connection to provide internet consulting services to a Company for 1,058,000 CNY in unlawful income.[31]

Russia

[edit]

Russia banned various VPN service providers in 2021.[32] Law No. 276-FZ (2017) requires VPN/anonymizer services to prevent access to sites on the government blacklist; it prohibits owners of virtual private network (VPN) services and internet anonymizers from providing access to websites banned in Russia. The obligation is codified via amendments adding Article 15.8 to the Information Law and enforced by Roskomnadzor.[33]

North Korea

[edit]

VPN use is subject to a blanket criminal ban protecting the North Korean internet firewall; communication through other countries’ communication networks without approval within the territory of the Republic is not allowed. The 2023 revision of the Radio Wave Control Law also provides penalties including fines and “up to three months of unpaid labor or punishment by labor education.[34]

Iran

[edit]

VPNs are subject to general criminalization, but with discretion by the government to allow certain permissible uses. Use of filtering-circumvention tools (e.g., VPN services) is prohibited unless legally authorized by permit under the Supreme Council of Cyberspace’s 2024 resolution (cl. 6).[35]


Comparison of commercial virtual private network services

[edit]

Privacy

[edit]

In 2018 PC Magazine recommended that users consider choosing a provider based in a country with no data retention laws because that makes it easier for the service to keep a promise of no logging.[36] PC Magazine and TechRadar also suggested that users read the provider's logging policy before signing up for the service,[37] because some providers collect information about their customers' VPN usage.[38][39]

Technical features

[edit]
Service Leak Protection Protocols Obfuscation / Censorship Avoidance Network Neutrality Server
First-party DNS servers IPv6 supported / blocked Offers kill switch Offers OpenVPN Offers WireGuard Supports multihop Supports TCP port 443 Supports Obfsproxy Offers SOCKS Linux support Supports SSL tunnel Supports SSH tunnel Blocks SMTP (authent.) Blocks P2P Dedicated or virtual Diskless
Avast SecureLine Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No No Some[40] Dedicated[41] No
ExpressVPN Yes[42] Yes Yes Yes[42] No No Yes[42] Yes[43] No[44] Both[45][46] Yes
Hotspot Shield No No Yes No No No No ?
IPVanish Yes[47] Yes[48] Yes Yes[49] Yes[50] No Yes[51] Yes[52] Yes[49] Yes[53] No No No[49] No[49] Dedicated No
IVPN Yes[54] No[55] Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes[56] Yes[57] No[58] No[59] Dedicated[60] No
Mullvad Yes[61] Yes[61] Yes Yes[61] Yes[62] Yes; WireGuard[63] and SOCKS5 Yes[61] No[64] Yes[65][61] Yes[66] Yes Yes[61] No[61] Yes[67] Dedicated[68] Yes[69]
NordVPN Yes[70] No[71] Yes Yes[72] Yes; NordLynx based on WireGuard[73] Yes; OpenVPN[74] and SOCKS5 Yes[75] Yes[76] Yes[77] Yes No[78] Dedicated Yes
Private Internet Access Yes[79] Yes[80] Yes Yes[81] Yes[82] Yes[83] Yes[84] No Yes[85] Yes[86] Some[a] No[88] Dedicated[89] Yes[90]
PrivadoVPN Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No
ProtonVPN Yes No Yes Yes Yes[91] Yes Yes No No Yes[92] Yes Yes Some[b] Dedicated
PureVPN Yes Yes Yes Yes[94] No No Only through SSTP[95] No No Yes[96] No Some[97] Both[98][46] No
Surfshark Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes (WG, OVPN, IKEv2) Yes No No Yes Some No Both Yes
TunnelBear Yes[99] Yes Yes Yes[100][101] No No No Yes[102][103] Yes Yes No[104] Some[105]
Windscribe Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes[106] Yes Yes No No[107] Yes

(via Stealth protocol)

No No No Dedicated[c] Yes[109] Yes

Notes

  1. ^ The support team may be willing to whitelist your email provider's SMTP server upon request.[87]
  2. ^ Only on free plan.[93]
  3. ^ With the exception of one virtual server located in Antartica.[108]


Encryption

[edit]
Service Data encryption Handshake encryption Data authentication
Default provided Strongest provided Weakest provided Strongest provided Weakest provided Strongest provided
Avast SecureLine AES-256
ExpressVPN AES-256 CA-4096
Hotspot Shield AES-128[110] TLS 1.2 ECDHE PFS[110] HMAC[111]
IPVanish AES-256[112] RSA-2048[112] SHA-256[112]
IVPN AES-256[54] RSA-4096[54]
Mullvad AES-256 (GCM)[61] ML-KEM[113] RSA-4096[61] SHA-512[61]
NordVPN AES-256[114] AES-256 (CBC)[114] 2048-bit Diffie-Hellman[114]
Private Internet Access AES-128 (CBC)[115] AES-256[115] ECC-256k1[115] RSA-4096[115] SHA-1[115] SHA-256[115]
PrivadoVPN AES-256
ProtonVPN AES-256 RSA-4096 HMAC with SHA-384
PureVPN AES-256
SaferVPN AES-256[116] 2048bit SSL/TLS[116] SHA-256[116]
TunnelBear AES-128 (CBC)[a] AES-256 (CBC)[100] 1548 bit Diffie–Hellman[b] 4096 bit Diffie–Hellman[100] SHA-1[c] SHA-256[100]
Surfshark AES-256 AES-256 (CBC) 2048-bit Diffie–Hellman
Windscribe AES-256[117] RSA-4096[117] SHA-512

Notes

  1. ^ Only on iOS 8 and earlier. All other supported devices and operating systems use AES-256 (CBC).[100]
  2. ^ iOS 9 and later use 2048 bit. iOS 8 and earlier use 1548 bit. All other supported devices and operating systems use 4096 bit.[100]
  3. ^ iOS 8 and earlier use SHA-1. All other supported devices and operating systems use SHA-256.[100]

Definitions

[edit]

The following definitions clarify the meaning of some of the column headers in the comparison tables above.

Anonymous payment method
Whether the service offers at least one payment method that does not require personal information. Even if a service accepts a cryptocurrency like bitcoin, it might still require that the customer hands over personally identifiable information (PII) like their full name and address.
Bandwidth
Whether the users' bandwidth is logged while using the service, according to the service's privacy policy.
Diskless
Whether the service's server hardware is connected to hard drives, according to the service provider. If the servers are diskless, the service provider should be unable to log any usage data.
First-party DNS servers
Whether the service provides its own domain name system (DNS) servers.
Kill switch
Whether the service has the ability to immediately sever your connection to the Internet in the event that the VPN connection fails. This prevents a user IP address leak.[118]
Logging
Whether the service stores information about their users' connection or activity on the network, according to the service's privacy policy or terms of service. If logging isn't mentioned in those sections but denied somewhere else on the website, the particular table cell will be marked as "No" in yellow and include an explanatory note.
Privacy Impact Score
An indicator of a website's usage of potentially privacy intrusive technologies such as third-party or permanent cookies, canvas trackers etc.[119] The score can be in the range from 0 to 100, where 0 is minimal privacy impact (best) and 100 is the biggest privacy impact (worst) relative to other web sites.[119] The score also has a simplified letter and colour presentation from A to F where A is "No cookies" and F is "Score above three standard deviations from the average".[119] The metric is developed by WebCookies.org.[119]
Obfuscation
Whether the service provides a method of obfuscating the VPN traffic so that it's not as easily detected and blocked by national governments or corporations.[120][121]
Offers WireGuard
Whether the service provider offers the WireGuard tunneling protocol.
SSL rating
The service's website's overall SSL server rating according to Qualys SSL Labs' SSL Server Test tool.
Supports Obfsproxy
Whether the service has an implementation of the Tor subproject Obfsproxy.[120][121]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

VPN service

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A virtual private network (VPN) service is a commercial subscription model that routes a user's internet traffic through an intermediary server operated by the provider, employing encryption protocols to secure data transmission across public networks and obscure the originating IP address from destination sites. These services differ from proxy servers, which act as intermediaries to forward specific requests and mask IP addresses but typically do not encrypt data or route all traffic comprehensively, leaving transmissions vulnerable to interception unless explicitly configured otherwise. These services typically leverage protocols such as IPsec for establishing secure tunnels, which encapsulate and encrypt packets to prevent interception on untrusted infrastructures like public Wi-Fi. While originally developed for enterprise remote access to private intranets, consumer VPN services have proliferated since the early 2000s to address individual needs for circumventing geographic content blocks, shielding against basic eavesdropping, and masking activity from local network observers. Key operational characteristics include the creation of an encrypted tunnel between the client device and the VPN server, often using standards like Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP) within IPsec to authenticate and protect payload integrity, though implementation quality varies widely among providers. Users connect via dedicated apps that handle protocol negotiation, server selection, and kill-switch features to halt traffic if the connection drops, thereby mitigating exposure. Empirical assessments reveal that VPNs effectively encrypt against casual surveillance and enable access to restricted resources, but their privacy benefits hinge critically on the provider's jurisdiction, infrastructure transparency, and adherence to no-logging claims, as traffic endpoints remain visible to the VPN operator itself. Notable uses encompass evading state-imposed internet filters in authoritarian regimes and protecting against ISP-level throttling, yet defining controversies arise from inconsistent logging practices, where many services assert "no logs" policies but retain connection metadata or bandwidth data for operational purposes, sometimes yielding to legal subpoenas despite marketing otherwise. Independent audits, such as those verifying minimal retention, underscore that only rigorously verified providers deliver promised anonymity, while others have faced exposure for data retention that undermines core privacy assurances. Advanced threats, including DNS leaks or provider-side compromises, further limit universal efficacy, emphasizing that VPNs serve as a tool for enhanced confidentiality rather than absolute untraceability.

Definition and Fundamentals

Technical Definition

A Virtual Private Network (VPN) is a networking architecture that enables the creation of secure, encrypted tunnels over public networks, such as the internet, to extend the functionality of a private network to remote users or sites. Technically, it operates by encapsulating original data packets within a new protocol header, forming a virtual tunnel that simulates a direct point-to-point or site-to-site connection, thereby isolating traffic from the underlying public infrastructure. This encapsulation, combined with cryptographic algorithms for confidentiality and integrity, ensures that data transmitted between endpoints remains protected against interception, modification, or spoofing, as standardized in frameworks like RFC 2764, which outlines IP-based VPNs across backbones. At its core, a VPN employs tunneling protocols to achieve this isolation; for instance, IPsec (Internet Protocol Security) provides network-layer security through authentication headers (AH) for integrity and encapsulating security payloads (ESP) for both confidentiality and integrity, as defined in RFC 4301 and subsequent updates. The process involves three primary phases: key exchange (e.g., via Internet Key Exchange or IKE, per RFC 7296), tunnel establishment, and data transmission, where plaintext traffic is encrypted using symmetric ciphers like AES-256 before encapsulation. This mechanism not only masks the source IP address—routing traffic through the VPN server's exit point—but also authenticates peers to prevent unauthorized access, distinguishing VPNs from mere proxies by their bidirectional, stateful security. NIST describes this as building a virtual network atop existing ones to secure IP data transmission between disparate networks. VPNs can be categorized technically into remote-access (client-to-site, connecting individual devices to a central network) and site-to-site (interconnecting entire LANs), with the former often using protocols like OpenVPN or WireGuard for lightweight, user-space implementations, while the latter leverages MPLS or BGP for scalable routing, as in RFC 4364 for BGP/MPLS VPNs. Performance metrics, such as throughput and latency, depend on factors like encryption overhead (e.g., computational cost of 256-bit keys) and protocol efficiency; for example, WireGuard achieves higher speeds than older protocols like PPTP due to its minimal codebase and ChaCha20-Poly1305 cryptography. Empirical benchmarks from independent tests show modern VPNs sustaining 500-1000 Mbps on gigabit connections under optimal conditions, though real-world efficacy varies with server load and network congestion.

Core Mechanisms

A virtual private network (VPN) operates by establishing an encrypted tunnel that encapsulates and routes a user's internet traffic through a remote server, thereby shielding the data from interception on public networks. This tunneling mechanism involves wrapping the original IP packets in a new protocol header, which directs them to the VPN server over the internet; upon receipt, the server unwraps the packets, decrypts the payload if necessary, and forwards the traffic to the intended destination using the server's own IP address. The process relies on standardized protocols such as IPsec, which provide the framework for secure encapsulation at the network layer, ensuring that data traverses untrusted networks as if on a private link. Encryption forms the foundational security layer within the tunnel, transforming plaintext data into ciphertext using symmetric algorithms like AES-256, with keys negotiated via protocols such as Diffie-Hellman during the initial handshake. This prevents eavesdroppers, including ISPs or attackers on Wi-Fi networks, from accessing readable content, as the encrypted packets appear as opaque traffic to intermediaries. Authentication mechanisms, often integrated via certificates or pre-shared keys in protocols like IPsec's Internet Key Exchange (IKE), verify the legitimacy of the client and server endpoints, mitigating man-in-the-middle risks before the tunnel is fully established. By routing all outbound traffic through the VPN server's IP address, the service effectively masks the user's real IP, making it appear to websites and services as originating from the server's location, which enables bypassing of geographic restrictions while complicating tracking by third parties. The server handles the decryption of incoming responses and re-encryption for transmission back through the tunnel, maintaining end-to-end protection between client and server but exposing data only at the server-to-destination leg, where standard internet encryption (e.g., HTTPS) typically applies. This architecture introduces latency due to the additional routing and processing overhead, with performance varying based on server proximity and protocol efficiency.

History

Origins and Early Protocols

The concept of virtual private networks (VPNs) emerged in the mid-1990s amid the rapid expansion of the public internet, driven by the need for businesses to enable secure remote access to internal networks without relying on insecure dial-up connections or leased lines. Prior to dedicated VPN protocols, remote connectivity often used the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) over modem links, but extending this over IP networks exposed data to interception, prompting innovations in tunneling and encryption. Early efforts built on foundational internet protocols like TCP/IP, established in the 1970s and 1980s through ARPANET research, which provided the packet-switched infrastructure but lacked built-in privacy mechanisms for private overlays. The first widely implemented VPN protocol was Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP), released in 1996 by a consortium led by Microsoft, alongside U.S. Robotics (later 3Com) and Ascend Communications. PPTP extended PPP by encapsulating its frames within Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) packets for transmission over IP, using Microsoft Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (MS-CHAP) for authentication and optional encryption via RC4. Designed for integration with Windows operating systems, PPTP facilitated straightforward setup for remote workers, achieving speeds up to 128 kbps on typical 1990s hardware, though its encryption was later criticized for vulnerabilities like weak key derivation. The protocol's specification was formalized in RFC 2637 in July 1999, reflecting iterative refinements from initial deployments. Concurrently, Cisco Systems developed Layer 2 Forwarding (L2F) in 1996 as an alternative for service provider-managed tunnels, focusing on forwarding PPP frames without native encryption, relying instead on external mechanisms like user-level authentication. L2F addressed multi-protocol support but proved limited for end-to-end security, leading to its evolution into Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) through an IETF working group combining L2F with PPTP elements; L2TP was standardized in RFC 2661 in August 1999. Unlike PPTP's integrated but flawed encryption, L2TP deferred security to companion protocols, often paired with IPsec for payload protection. IPsec, another foundational protocol, originated from earlier research including the 1993 Software IP Encryption Protocol (SwIPe) by John Ioannidis and M. Angela Sasse, which prototyped IP-layer encryption. The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) advanced this into IPsec, with key RFCs published between 1995 and 1998—such as RFC 1825 for initial security architecture and RFC 2401 for the updated framework—enabling authenticated, encrypted tunnels via Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP) and Authentication Header (AH) modes. IPsec operated at the network layer, supporting both transport and tunnel modes for site-to-site and remote access VPNs, and became a de facto standard for robust security, though its complexity hindered early adoption compared to PPTP's simplicity. These protocols collectively addressed causal gaps in internet architecture, where public routing lacked isolation, by overlaying virtual circuits with cryptographic guarantees, though real-world efficacy depended on proper key management and implementation.

Expansion and Commercial Adoption

The adoption of VPN technology expanded beyond initial enterprise applications in the late 1990s, as protocols like Microsoft's Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP), released in 1996, enabled secure remote access for businesses over public networks. Enterprises increasingly deployed VPNs to connect distributed workforces, driven by the growth of the internet and the need to protect data from interception on shared infrastructures; by the early 2000s, major corporations integrated VPNs into their standard IT security frameworks, with IPSec emerging as a robust standard for site-to-site connections. Commercial consumer VPN services gained traction in the mid-2000s, coinciding with the proliferation of public Wi-Fi hotspots and broadband internet, which heightened awareness of unsecured connections. Pioneering providers such as StrongVPN, HideMyAss, IPVanish, and Ironsocket launched operations in 2005, offering simplified, subscription-based access that reduced the technical barriers previously limiting adoption to IT professionals. The 2001 release of OpenVPN, an open-source protocol supporting multiple encryption methods, further catalyzed commercial development by allowing providers to build scalable, customizable services without proprietary constraints. This shift to consumer markets accelerated in the 2010s, fueled by rising data privacy concerns, geopolitical events like the 2013 Edward Snowden disclosures revealing mass surveillance, and the demand for bypassing geo-restrictions on streaming content. VPN usage surged among individuals seeking anonymity on public networks and in regions with internet censorship, with commercial offerings evolving to include user-friendly apps for mobile devices. Market evidence underscores this expansion: the U.S. VPN provider industry grew at a compound annual rate of 13.8% from 2020 to 2025, reflecting broader commercial viability as revenues approached $3.6 billion by 2025. Globally, the sector transitioned from niche enterprise tools to a multibillion-dollar industry, with over 90% of analyzed providers established post-2005, indicating rapid commercialization.

Types of VPN Services

Commercial Providers

Commercial VPN providers deliver paid subscription services that encrypt internet traffic and route it through remote servers to enhance user privacy, bypass geo-restrictions, and secure connections on public networks. These services typically charge $3 to $12 per month depending on plan length, with annual commitments offering discounts, and emphasize features like kill switches, split tunneling, and protocol support for WireGuard or OpenVPN. Market leaders prioritize large server fleets for performance and conduct independent audits to substantiate no-logs claims, though jurisdiction and ownership influence vulnerability to legal compelled disclosure. In 2025, the VPN sector's consumer segment fuels growth to an estimated $71.25 billion globally, reflecting demand for tools against ISP tracking and content blocks. NordVPN, a dominant provider, bases operations in Panama—a jurisdiction lacking mandatory data retention laws and outside surveillance alliances like the Five Eyes—reducing risks of government-mandated logging. It maintains over 7,400 servers in 118 countries, enabling low-latency connections for streaming and torrenting, and has passed five independent no-logs audits since 2018, with the latest in February 2025 verifying no retention of IP addresses, timestamps, or browsing data. Owned by Nord Security, a Lithuania-registered entity, NordVPN integrates additional tools like Threat Protection for malware blocking, though its scale invites scrutiny over potential economies of scope in data handling despite audit validations. ExpressVPN operates from the British Virgin Islands, another privacy-oriented territory without data retention requirements, and features RAM-only TrustedServers that wipe data on reboot to preclude logging. Its network spans 105 countries with 164 server locations, supporting high speeds via proprietary Lightway protocol, and has undergone 23 third-party audits by mid-2025, including a KPMG verification of no-logs infrastructure. However, ownership by Kape Technologies—formerly Crossrider, linked to adware distribution platforms—raises concerns about historical business practices, even as current audits confirm technical compliance; users weigh this against empirical evidence from transparency reports showing zero user data handed over in legal requests during January-June 2025. Surfshark, acquired by Nord Security in 2022 but run separately, offers unlimited simultaneous connections at budget pricing, appealing to households, with a network optimized for unblocking services like Netflix. It secured Deloitte's confirmation of its no-logs policy in June 2025, covering IP and activity non-retention, building on prior verifications. Post-acquisition alignment with Nord's Panama base bolsters jurisdictional privacy, though integration risks centralizing oversight; independent tests affirm its efficacy in evading censorship without bandwidth throttling.
ProviderJurisdictionServer LocationsRecent No-Logs AuditOwnership Notes
NordVPNPanama118 countriesFifth audit, Feb 2025 (independent)Nord Security (Lithuania-registered)
ExpressVPNBritish Virgin Islands105 countriesKPMG, June 2025; 23 total auditsKape Technologies (controversial adware history)
SurfsharkAligned with Panama (post-acquisition)100+ countriesDeloitte, June 2025Nord Security subsidiary
Other notable providers like Proton VPN (Switzerland-based, annual audits emphasizing open-source apps) and Private Internet Access (U.S.-headquartered but court-tested no-logs) compete on niche strengths, such as Proton's integration with encrypted email or PIA's proven resistance to subpoenas. Selection hinges on empirical factors: audits provide verifiable proof against logging claims, while jurisdictions outside intelligence-sharing pacts minimize causal risks of data exposure, though no provider eliminates all threats from endpoint compromises or user errors.

Free and Freemium Options

Free VPN services provide basic virtual private network functionality at no monetary cost, often through advertising, data limitations, or freemium models that encourage upgrades to paid tiers. These options appeal to users seeking occasional privacy or access without commitment, but they typically impose restrictions such as bandwidth caps, reduced server access, and throttled speeds to offset operational expenses. Freemium VPNs, by contrast, offer a no-cost entry level with core encryption features while reserving advanced capabilities—like higher speeds or more locations—for subscribers. A 2025 Zimperium zLabs analysis of over 800 free VPN applications on Android and iOS platforms revealed that nearly two-thirds exhibited vulnerabilities, including insecure coding that exposed user data and enabled potential breaches of sensitive information. Many free providers sustain operations by harvesting user data for sale, injecting malware, or displaying intrusive ads, practices that undermine the privacy purportedly offered. For instance, operational models lacking transparent revenue streams often lead to logging of browsing activity or IP addresses, contravening no-logs claims. Among reputable freemium options, Proton VPN's free tier stands out for providing unlimited bandwidth and data without advertisements or activity logging, backed by independent audits confirming its privacy commitments. It supports one simultaneous connection across servers in three countries (United States, Netherlands, Japan) with medium-speed performance, suitable for light browsing but inadequate for streaming or high-bandwidth tasks. TunnelBear's free plan limits users to 2 GB of monthly data while maintaining audited minimal logging policies, with data stored only in Canada and no retention of browsing history. Other freemium services like Windscribe offer 10 GB monthly on the free plan with customizable features, though speeds and server options remain constrained compared to paid equivalents. Users of free tiers should verify provider audits and avoid unvetted apps, as empirical evidence from security firms indicates that most free VPNs fail to deliver robust protection, often prioritizing monetization over user security. This is particularly pronounced in high-censorship environments like China, where free VPNs are prone to instability, traffic caps, and easy detection or blocking due to lacking advanced obfuscation, making paid options preferable for reliable access to restricted social media. For sustained or critical use, experts recommend transitioning to paid services to mitigate inherent risks.

Self-Hosted and Enterprise Solutions

Self-hosted VPN solutions enable individuals or small organizations to deploy their own VPN servers on personal hardware, virtual private servers (VPS), or cloud instances, granting full administrative control over configuration, logging, and data routing. Popular open-source options include WireGuard, which was first released in 2016 and integrated into the Linux kernel in March 2020 for enhanced performance and simplicity, and OpenVPN, initially released in 2001 as an open-source protocol supporting both UDP and TCP transports. Other tools like PiVPN simplify setup on devices such as Raspberry Pi by automating WireGuard or OpenVPN installations, while Tailscale leverages WireGuard for zero-configuration mesh networking across devices. These setups typically require technical expertise for certificate management, firewall rules, and updates, but offer advantages such as absence of third-party logging—ensuring no external provider retains connection metadata—and potential cost savings over commercial subscriptions when hosted on low-cost VPS providers. However, drawbacks include increased exposure to configuration errors that could compromise security, ongoing maintenance burdens like patching vulnerabilities, and limited scalability without dedicated infrastructure, as self-hosted servers may suffer from bandwidth constraints or single points of failure if reliant on residential internet. Enterprise VPN solutions, by contrast, prioritize scalability, compliance, and integration for organizational networks, often deploying site-to-site or remote access architectures to connect branch offices, data centers, or mobile workforces. Common protocols include IPsec, which operates at the network layer (Layer 3) to encrypt entire IP packets for robust site-to-site tunnels using authentication headers (AH) and encapsulating security payloads (ESP), and SSL/TLS-based VPNs, which function at the application layer to enable browser-accessible portals or client-based tunnels without requiring full network-layer encryption. IPsec suits high-throughput, always-on connections between fixed locations, while SSL VPNs excel in user-friendly remote access, supporting granular policy enforcement like role-based access control integrated with Active Directory. Major vendors such as Cisco (via AnyConnect), Fortinet, and Palo Alto Networks dominate deployments, with the enterprise VPN market valued at $48.50 billion in 2024 and projected to reach $151.77 billion by 2031 at a 17.7% CAGR, driven by hybrid work demands and regulatory needs like GDPR or HIPAA compliance. These systems often incorporate hardware appliances or software-defined overlays for centralized management, multi-factor authentication, and traffic inspection to mitigate threats, though they demand significant upfront investment and skilled IT oversight to avoid misconfigurations that could expose internal assets. OpenVPN Access Server provides a self-hosted enterprise variant, supporting up to unlimited users with features like LDAP integration, but requires licensing beyond two concurrent connections.
ProtocolLayerPrimary UseKey StrengthsLimitations
IPsecNetwork (L3)Site-to-site, remote accessStrong encryption for full tunnels, NAT traversalComplex setup, potential incompatibility with firewalls
SSL VPNApplication (L7)Remote user accessEasy deployment via web browsers, granular app accessLess efficient for bulk data transfer, reliant on TLS vulnerabilities
Self-hosted and enterprise approaches differ fundamentally in trust models: self-hosted emphasizes user sovereignty but shifts all liability to the operator, whereas enterprise solutions distribute risk through vendor support and audited codebases, though both necessitate rigorous auditing to counter evolving threats like quantum-resistant encryption needs.

Technical Specifications

Encryption and Protocols

Virtual private networks (VPNs) secure data transmission by encrypting IP packets within a tunneling protocol, preventing interception and ensuring confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity. Encryption relies on symmetric key algorithms, with the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) in 256-bit key length and Galois/Counter Mode (GCM) being the preferred method for federal systems due to its resistance to known attacks and efficient authenticated encryption. ChaCha20, a stream cipher paired with Poly1305 for authentication, serves as an alternative, offering comparable security with better performance on resource-constrained devices and resistance to timing attacks that can affect AES implementations. Key exchange typically uses elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman (ECDH) variants like Curve25519 for forward secrecy, ensuring session keys remain secure even if long-term keys are compromised. Common protocols implement these encryption standards differently, balancing security, speed, and compatibility. OpenVPN, an open-source protocol utilizing SSL/TLS for transport, supports AES-256-GCM and allows customization of cipher suites, making it versatile for various threat models; it has undergone extensive audits and remains a benchmark for reliability despite higher overhead from its user-space implementation. WireGuard, introduced in 2016 and stabilized by 2020, employs ChaCha20-Poly1305 exclusively for data encryption and Noise protocol framework for handshakes, achieving superior speed—up to 57% faster than OpenVPN in benchmarks—through its minimal codebase of under 4,000 lines, which reduces attack surface compared to OpenVPN's larger footprint. IKEv2/IPsec, standardized by IETF, uses the Internet Key Exchange version 2 for negotiation and Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP) for tunneling with AES encryption, excelling in mobile environments due to rapid reconnection after network changes, though it requires careful configuration to avoid deprecated modes like SHA-1 hashing. Older protocols like PPTP and L2TP/IPsec have known vulnerabilities: PPTP's MS-CHAP v2 authentication is susceptible to dictionary attacks, rendering it insecure since its 1999 debut, while L2TP lacks native encryption and depends on IPsec, adding complexity without modern advantages. Best practices recommend prioritizing WireGuard or OpenVPN for consumer use, with IKEv2 as a fallback for stability on iOS and Windows, and always verifying perfect forward secrecy and cipher strength to mitigate risks from quantum threats or implementation flaws. No protocol guarantees absolute security against state-level adversaries or endpoint compromises, but proper use of audited implementations and up-to-date libraries like OpenSSL or libsodium enhances resilience.

Server Networks and Performance Factors

The scale and geographic distribution of a VPN provider's server network determine its capacity to handle user traffic, minimize congestion, and support location-specific routing. Networks comprising thousands of servers across dozens of countries enable load balancing, where traffic is directed to underutilized nodes, reducing bottlenecks that degrade throughput. For instance, as of 2025, leading providers operate networks exceeding 6,000 servers in over 60 countries, facilitating connections to nearby endpoints that lower propagation delays inherent in long-distance data transmission. Larger networks also enhance redundancy, allowing failover to alternative servers during outages or peak usage, which sustains consistent availability without single points of failure. Key performance factors include server proximity to the user, which causally drives latency through increased round-trip times for data packets; low ping, or minimal round-trip latency to the VPN server, is particularly important for maintaining responsive connections in real-time applications like gaming, as it minimizes delays beyond mere bandwidth throughput. Empirical measurements indicate that selecting a server within the same continent can halve latency compared to intercontinental hops, as signal travel over fiber optics incurs approximately 5 milliseconds per 1,000 kilometers under ideal conditions. Network congestion on popular servers amplifies this, introducing queuing delays that can reduce effective bandwidth by 20-50% during high-demand periods, mitigated by providers' dynamic server allocation in expansive networks. Encryption processes add computational overhead, with stronger algorithms like AES-256 imposing higher CPU usage that throttles speeds on low-end hardware, while protocol choice further modulates outcomes—WireGuard's lightweight design yields 2-4 times higher throughput and 10-20% lower latency than OpenVPN in controlled benchmarks, due to fewer handshakes and minimal packet processing. All VPNs introduce some speed reduction due to encryption overhead and routing (typically 10-25% drop in connection speed), though premium providers minimize this through efficient protocols like WireGuard and optimized server infrastructure; performance can still vary with server crowding. Baseline internet speed caps VPN performance, as the tunnel cannot exceed the underlying connection's capacity, compounded by protocol-induced overhead of 5-15% from encapsulation and integrity checks. Server-side factors, such as hardware specifications and peering arrangements with ISPs, influence uplink capacity; underprovisioned servers in dense urban locations may exhibit jitter exceeding 50 milliseconds, disrupting real-time applications like VoIP. VPNs introduce an extra hop that can add latency, but optimized protocols like WireGuard and nearby servers on premium providers typically limit this overhead to 3-12 ms, making them viable for latency-sensitive applications such as online gaming. Optimizing connections involves selecting lightly loaded, proximate servers and efficient protocols, though systemic limitations like the "trombone effect"—where traffic detours to the VPN endpoint before reaching the destination—persistently elevate latency by 20-100 milliseconds regardless of network size.

Primary Use Cases

Privacy Enhancement

Virtual private networks (VPNs) enhance user privacy primarily by establishing an encrypted tunnel for internet traffic, which conceals the content of data transmissions from intermediaries such as internet service providers (ISPs) and local network operators. This encryption ensures that while an ISP can detect a connection to the VPN server, it cannot inspect the destinations visited or the data exchanged thereafter, thereby preventing routine monitoring of browsing habits. On public Wi-Fi networks, where eavesdropping risks are elevated due to untrusted access points, the tunnel protects unencrypted traffic from surveillance by nearby attackers. A core mechanism is the masking of the user's real IP address, as all outbound requests appear to originate from the VPN server's IP, thwarting website trackers and services from linking activities to the individual's true location or identity. This obscures geolocation data and reduces the efficacy of IP-based profiling by advertisers or data brokers. Empirical analyses of commercial VPN ecosystems confirm widespread adoption for such anonymity, with users leveraging the technology to evade routine tracking inherent in unmediated connections. Privacy gains are further bolstered by providers implementing strict no-logs policies, where no records of user activities, connections, or timestamps are retained, as verified through independent third-party audits. For instance, audits of services like Proton VPN in 2025 and NordVPN across multiple years have confirmed compliance with no-logs claims, ensuring that even under legal compulsion, no identifiable data exists to disclose. Such verifications distinguish reputable providers from those potentially susceptible to data retention practices, though efficacy depends on selecting audited services to mitigate trust risks. Overall, these features collectively elevate privacy against network-level threats, though they do not address endpoint vulnerabilities like device malware or browser fingerprinting.

Censorship Circumvention

Virtual private networks (VPNs) enable users in regions with internet censorship to access blocked websites and services by encrypting traffic and routing it through servers located in jurisdictions without such restrictions, thereby masking the user's true IP address and evading IP-based blocks. This circumvention relies on protocols that tunnel data past national firewalls, allowing access to platforms like Google, Facebook, and independent news sources prohibited domestically. In practice, effectiveness varies by the sophistication of the censoring regime's detection methods, with basic IP blocking being readily bypassed but advanced techniques posing greater hurdles. China's Great Firewall exemplifies a major target for VPN circumvention, where state controls block foreign sites and monitor domestic traffic; VPNs can bypass these blocks to access services like the international version of TikTok by connecting to foreign servers. Users should download VPN applications prior to entering such jurisdictions using available network access, as app stores within China often remove many VPN apps, necessitating the use of official mirror sites (which can be located by searching for "[VPN provider] mirror"), contacting providers via email for download links, or pre-installation to ensure availability. For accessing blocked social media platforms and services in China, users should prioritize VPNs offering stability to bypass restrictions, the capability to unblock apps including streaming services like Netflix and Disney+ as well as AI tools like ChatGPT, sufficient speeds for browsing, enhanced stability during peak hours via dedicated international lines such as IEPL or IPLC, and compatibility with advanced proxy clients like Clash for rule-based routing; affordable paid options with traffic obfuscation modes to disguise usage and unlimited device connections are preferred over free VPNs, which often suffer instability, data limits, or frequent blocking. TikTok detects users via SIM cards from Chinese operators (China Mobile, Unicom, Telecom), causing black screens, no videos, login failures, or "no network" errors to comply with domestic regulations. Despite this, VPN usage nearly doubled in early 2024 amid heightened censorship, empowering users to discuss political issues without immediate repercussions. Similarly, in Iran, over 86% of internet users employed VPNs by mid-2025 to bypass restrictions on social media and news, according to a Tehran E-Commerce Association report, reflecting widespread reliance despite periodic crackdowns. In Turkey, approximately 33% of users adopted VPNs by 2025, with demand surging 100% following a October 2023 social media ban, enabling access to platforms like Instagram and X (formerly Twitter). Russia and other authoritarian states have imposed VPN restrictions, yet adoption remains high in censored environments, driven by blocks on Western media during conflicts like the Ukraine invasion. Historical events underscore VPNs' role in evasion; during the 2019 Hong Kong protests, demand for circumvention tools spiked as authorities throttled access to protest-coordinating apps, with users turning to VPNs alongside mesh networks for peer-to-peer communication. In the Arab Spring uprisings of 2010-2011, services like Hotspot Shield facilitated bypassing Egyptian and Tunisian government shutdowns, allowing activists to share videos and organize despite blackouts. However, regimes counter with deep packet inspection (DPI), which analyzes encrypted traffic patterns to identify and throttle VPN protocols like OpenVPN or WireGuard, as deployed by China's GFW since the early 2010s and Egypt's authorities in 2023. This prompts an ongoing technological arms race, where obfuscated servers—dedicated servers that mask VPN traffic to avoid detection and flagging—employ obfuscation techniques such as disguising VPN traffic as regular HTTPS to extend usability, though no method guarantees indefinite success against state-level resources. Legal risks accompany circumvention; while VPNs are tools for evasion rather than inherently illegal in most cases, seven countries—including China, Iran, Russia, and North Korea—fully ban or severely restrict their use by 2025, with penalties ranging from fines to imprisonment for unlicensed operation. Freedom House reports that authoritarian governments increasingly criminalize VPNs to close evasion loopholes, as seen in Iran's 2024 expansions of anti-circumvention laws. Users must weigh these against benefits, noting that even approved VPNs in China require government licensing, which often self-censors traffic. Empirical data from these contexts affirm VPNs' utility for short-term access but highlight vulnerabilities to proactive blocking, underscoring the need for protocol agility over static reliance.

Secure Connectivity

VPNs establish secure connectivity by encapsulating user traffic within an encrypted tunnel, shielding data from interception on untrusted networks such as public Wi-Fi hotspots, where man-in-the-middle attacks and packet sniffing are prevalent risks. This encryption renders transmitted data— including login credentials, financial details, and personal information—unreadable to eavesdroppers, including malicious actors on the same network or compromised routers. For instance, surveys indicate that 84% of VPN users employ the technology specifically to bolster security when connecting via public Wi-Fi, reflecting widespread recognition of these vulnerabilities. Empirical assessments from cybersecurity analyses confirm that properly implemented VPN protocols, such as those using AES-256 encryption, effectively mitigate exposure to local network threats, as the tunnel bypasses the inherent insecurity of open wireless protocols like WPA2, which have been demonstrated vulnerable to exploits since 2017. In enterprise environments, VPNs facilitate secure remote access to internal networks, allowing employees to connect from external locations while maintaining confidentiality and integrity of corporate data. Approximately 80% of organizations rely on VPNs to secure remote worker access, a figure underscoring their role in supporting distributed workforces post-2020 shifts toward remote operations. By routing traffic through authenticated gateways, VPNs enforce access controls and prevent unauthorized lateral movement within the network, with adoption driven by the need to protect against ISP-level surveillance and unsecure home or travel connections. Real-world deployments, as documented in industry reports, show VPNs reducing unauthorized access incidents by tunneling sessions over public infrastructure, though efficacy depends on robust key management and protocol selection to avoid deprecated standards like PPTP. Beyond individual and business applications, VPNs enhance secure connectivity for mobile users traversing variable networks, such as cellular-to-Wi-Fi handoffs, by providing consistent encryption layers that persist across connection types. Usage statistics reveal that 31% of VPN adopters cite public Wi-Fi protection as a primary motivator, with mobile VPN implementations particularly valued for on-the-go scenarios like travel or commuting. This capability extends to IoT devices and edge computing, where VPN overlays secure otherwise exposed endpoints, though comprehensive protection requires integration with endpoint detection tools to address post-tunnel threats.

Security and Efficacy

Proven Benefits

VPNs demonstrably encrypt user traffic using protocols such as OpenVPN and WireGuard, rendering data unreadable to intermediaries like ISPs and public Wi-Fi operators who might otherwise inspect packet contents through techniques like deep packet inspection. This encryption prevents ISPs from logging specific websites visited or data transferred, limiting their ability to profile users for targeted advertising or surveillance, as confirmed in analyses showing VPNs effectively block ISP-level monitoring when implemented with strong ciphers like AES-256. Empirical testing of commercial VPNs indicates they are less prone to traffic interception or modification compared to non-VPN proxies, with success rates in maintaining payload integrity exceeding 95% across sampled providers. On untrusted networks, such as public Wi-Fi hotspots vulnerable to eavesdropping or ARP spoofing, VPNs establish a secure tunnel from the device endpoint, thwarting man-in-the-middle attacks by ensuring intercepted packets yield only ciphertext rather than usable plaintext. Research deploying VPNs alongside mobile proxies in simulated public Wi-Fi environments has shown near-complete mitigation of MITM exploits, with attackers unable to decrypt or inject payloads post-tunneling. This protection stems from the causal chain of end-to-end encryption prior to network traversal, empirically validated in controlled tests where non-VPN traffic suffered data exfiltration in under 10% of cases versus zero for VPN-secured sessions. VPNs also enable circumvention of IP-based geo-restrictions and basic censorship by masking the user's origin IP with that of a remote server, allowing access to blocked content in regimes employing DNS or IP filtering. Usage data from 2022-2024 reveals VPN adoption spikes—up to 500% in countries like Iran and Russia during crackdowns—correlating with successful evasion of state firewalls, as providers rotate obfuscated protocols to counter detection. Peer-reviewed surveys confirm VPNs' role in restoring connectivity, with effectiveness rates above 80% against non-advanced blocking before adaptive countermeasures emerge. However, these benefits assume provider adherence to no-log policies, verifiable through independent audits in select cases like those from Deloitte or Cure53 for major services. A real-world example is the 2023 raid on Mullvad VPN's offices by Swedish authorities, where no user data was compromised due to the provider's strict no-logs implementation and anonymous account system.

Inherent Limitations

VPNs do not confer anonymity, as they merely route traffic through a provider's server, which can access all unencrypted content and metadata upon decryption, while other identifiers such as browser fingerprints, cookies, and account credentials remain visible to websites and trackers. Unlike anonymity networks like Tor, which distribute traffic across multiple relays to obscure origins, VPNs create a single trust point at the provider, enabling correlation of entry and exit traffic if logs are subpoenaed or compromised. Encryption and remote server routing impose computational overhead from packet encapsulation, decryption, and added latency, typically reducing throughput by 10-50% depending on protocol and distance, as empirical benchmarks demonstrate slower effective bandwidth compared to direct connections. WireGuard protocols mitigate some overhead relative to OpenVPN, yet inherent rerouting still degrades performance for latency-sensitive applications like gaming or video streaming. VPNs secure transit data but offer no inherent protection against endpoint threats, including malware infections, phishing exploits, or local device vulnerabilities, which can capture information before or after tunnel encryption. Similarly, they fail to prevent tracking via non-IP methods or secure misconfigurations that leak DNS queries outside the tunnel. Metadata such as packet sizes, timing patterns, and connection volumes can leak usage profiles through traffic analysis, allowing detection of VPN employment and inference of activity types even without content decryption. This vulnerability persists across protocols, as outer headers remain unencrypted, enabling passive observers like ISPs to identify and potentially throttle or block VPN traffic.

Real-World Vulnerabilities

VPN services have demonstrated vulnerabilities in real-world deployments, including server compromises, unintended logging disclosures, and traffic leaks that undermine user anonymity. In 2017, PureVPN provided connection timestamps and originating IP addresses to the FBI, enabling the identification of a suspect in an internet stalking case, despite the provider's claims of minimal logging. Similarly, in 2018, IPVanish supplied detailed user logs to U.S. Department of Homeland Security investigators in a child exploitation probe, contradicting its no-logs policy assertions. These incidents highlight how providers' retention of metadata, even if not full browsing histories, can facilitate law enforcement deanonymization when compelled. Data breaches at VPN providers have exposed vast user datasets, often including sensitive identifiers. In 2021, SuperVPN and affiliated services like GeckoVPN suffered a breach revealing over 21 million records, encompassing usernames, emails, IP addresses, device details, and location logs. A subsequent 2023 exposure from SuperVPN dumped 360 million records publicly, including emails and IP data, due to an unprotected database. In 2020, seven shared-infrastructure VPNs (UFO VPN, Fast VPN, Free VPN, Super VPN, Flash VPN, Rabbit VPN, and VPN Proxy Master) leaked 1.2 terabytes of logs, affecting millions via unsecured servers. The Hola VPN service, in 2015, operated a peer-to-peer model that repurposed users' bandwidth as exit nodes for third-party activities, including DDoS attacks, effectively creating a 47-million-node botnet without explicit consent. Client-side and configuration flaws exacerbate risks, with traffic leaks bypassing encryption tunnels. DNS leaks occur when queries resolve outside the VPN, exposing activity to ISPs; WebRTC leaks reveal real IP addresses via browser APIs if not properly blocked. Independent tests of 74 VPNs in 2018 found 15 exhibiting IP, DNS, or WebRTC leaks under load or protocol switches. A 2025 analysis of 30 paid Android VPN apps revealed 53% leaked user data, such as IPs or identifiers, despite privacy promises. Post-2020 remote work surge saw VPN-targeted attacks rise 238%, often exploiting misconfigurations or unpatched flaws in protocols like OpenVPN or WireGuard implementations. These vulnerabilities stem from factors like inadequate server hardening, reliance on third-party infrastructure, and incomplete leak prevention in apps, underscoring that VPN efficacy depends on provider diligence beyond core encryption. Audits and no-logs certifications mitigate but do not eliminate risks, as external breaches or legal demands persist.

Criticisms and Debates

Operational Drawbacks

VPN services inherently introduce performance overhead due to data encryption, decryption, and rerouting through remote servers, which can reduce internet speeds by 10-50% or more depending on factors such as server distance, load, and encryption protocol strength. This latency arises from the additional processing time for encapsulating packets and the longer network path, often resulting in noticeable delays for real-time activities like gaming or video streaming. Empirical tests confirm that even optimized VPNs struggle to match native connection speeds, with degradation exacerbated on distant or congested servers. Operational reliability is further compromised by potential leaks, where user IP addresses, DNS queries, or WebRTC data bypass the encrypted tunnel, exposing real locations and negating privacy protections. DNS leaks occur when systems query unencrypted ISP servers instead of the VPN's, a flaw documented in multiple implementations due to misconfigurations or protocol shortcomings. Independent audits have revealed leaks in up to 20% of tested free VPN apps, particularly via WebRTC on Android devices, though premium providers generally perform better with proper setup. IP leaks similarly stem from IPv6 incompatibilities or kill-switch failures, underscoring the need for rigorous testing to ensure tunnel integrity. On mobile devices, VPN usage elevates CPU demands for continuous encryption, leading to accelerated battery drain of approximately 5-15% during active sessions compared to non-VPN operation. This effect intensifies with power-intensive protocols like OpenVPN over cellular networks, where tests show hourly consumption rising by up to 7% versus Wi-Fi baselines. While some providers mitigate this through lighter protocols like WireGuard, the inherent computational load remains a persistent drawback for prolonged use. Server downtime and connection instability add to operational challenges, with frequent disconnections attributed to network instability, protocol mismatches, or server overloads that disrupt sessions without warning. Providers target near-100% uptime, but real-world issues like packet loss or firewall interference often cause intermittent drops, requiring manual reconnection and interrupting workflows. Smaller VPN providers, operating with limited infrastructure, are particularly prone to unstable connections and slow speeds due to resource constraints and overload susceptibility, alongside potential incompatibilities with specialized clients like Clash or Shadowrocket from limited protocol support, and risks of service shutdowns or blocks. These failures highlight VPNs' dependence on provider infrastructure quality and user-side configurations for consistent performance.

Provider Trust Issues

Trust in VPN providers is frequently undermined by instances where companies have contradicted their no-logs policies by retaining and disclosing user data to authorities. In 2017, PureVPN supplied the FBI with connection logs, including timestamps and originating IP addresses, that identified a suspected cyberstalker, despite the provider's public assertion of maintaining no activity or connection records. Similarly, in 2018, IPVanish provided U.S. Department of Homeland Security investigators with user logs from multiple sessions, enabling the identification of a Comcast subscriber involved in copyright infringement, which directly contradicted IPVanish's no-logging claims at the time. Jurisdictional vulnerabilities exacerbate these concerns, as VPNs headquartered in countries with mandatory data retention laws or membership in intelligence-sharing alliances like the Five, Nine, or Fourteen Eyes are susceptible to compelled cooperation. For instance, providers based in the United States or United Kingdom may be required under local statutes to store connection metadata or respond to warrants without public disclosure, potentially overriding no-logs assurances. In contrast, operations in privacy-friendly locales like Panama or the British Virgin Islands reduce such risks, though even these can face extraterritorial pressures if servers or users are located elsewhere. Free and low-cost VPNs often present heightened trust risks due to inadequate security and profit-driven practices, such as monetizing user bandwidth or suffering breaches. Hola VPN faced scrutiny in 2015 for operating a peer-to-peer network that effectively turned millions of free users' devices into an exit node botnet, with their IP addresses resold via Luminati for activities including DDoS attacks, exposing users to legal and security liabilities. More recently, in 2023, the free SuperVPN service exposed over 360 million user records, including usernames, emails, and IP addresses, through an unsecured database, highlighting persistent vulnerabilities in resource-constrained providers. While independent audits have become more common among established providers to verify no-logs claims—such as those conducted in 2025 for services like Proton VPN and Norton VPN—past scandals underscore the need for skepticism, as policies can shift post-acquisition or under legal duress, and audits may not cover all operational realities like server configurations or third-party dependencies. Users must weigh these factors against empirical evidence of compliance, recognizing that no provider is immune to incentives for data monetization or governmental demands.

Overstated Claims

Many VPN providers advertise their services as granting users complete anonymity online, a claim that misrepresents the technology's capabilities. While VPNs mask a user's IP address from destination websites by routing traffic through a remote server, they do not obscure identifiers such as browser fingerprints, cookies, or account logins, which can still enable tracking by advertisers or entities with access to multiple data points. Furthermore, the VPN provider itself can view unencrypted traffic metadata and, in cases of poor implementation, potentially access content if encryption fails, undermining the notion of inherent untraceability. Providers frequently overstate VPNs' role in providing foolproof security against cyber threats, portraying them as comprehensive shields against hackers, malware, and surveillance. In reality, VPNs primarily encrypt data in transit between the user and the VPN server, offering no protection against endpoint vulnerabilities such as phishing attacks, device malware, or exploits targeting applications like browsers or operating systems. Security researchers have noted that such hyperbolic marketing fosters a false sense of security, leading users to neglect basic practices like software updates or antivirus use, as VPNs address only network-level privacy rather than holistic cybersecurity. No-logs policies are another area of exaggeration, with many services claiming zero data retention to assure users of absolute privacy, yet independent audits and investigations reveal inconsistencies. For instance, some providers have been found to log connection times, bandwidth usage, or even partial identifiers despite assurances, either due to technical necessities or jurisdictional pressures, and third-party audits often cover only specific periods or aspects without verifying long-term compliance. A 2025 analysis of VPN provider statements found that a significant portion included misleading information about threat protection and logging, with over half failing to specify actual threat agents mitigated. These claims persist in marketing despite evidence that no VPN can guarantee immunity from legal compelled disclosures or internal breaches. VPN advertisements often imply seamless circumvention of all geo-restrictions and censorship, but empirical tests show frequent failures against advanced blocking techniques like deep packet inspection or dynamic IP blacklisting by streaming services and governments. Providers' aggressive promotions, including influencer endorsements, amplify these overpromises, sometimes containing vague or false assertions about shielding users from broad "internet threats" without delineating limitations, which can erode trust when real-world performance falls short.

Permissibility by Jurisdiction

Virtual private networks (VPNs) are permissible in the majority of jurisdictions worldwide, including the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, Japan, and most European Union member states, where no federal or national laws prohibit their use for legitimate privacy, encryption, and secure browsing purposes. In these regions, VPNs face no inherent legal barriers, though their deployment cannot facilitate illegal activities such as copyright infringement or cybercrime, which remain prosecutable under existing statutes. Authoritarian governments, however, frequently restrict or ban VPNs to enforce internet censorship, surveillance, and content controls, with permissibility conditional on state approval and compliance. In China, VPNs are legal only if government-licensed and integrated with the Great Firewall for data logging and blocking; unauthorized providers are systematically obstructed via the national intranet, and users of unapproved services risk administrative detention, fines up to 15,000 yuan (approximately $2,100 USD as of 2025), or criminal charges under cybersecurity laws enacted in 2017 and reinforced thereafter. Russia mandates VPN registration with the Federal Service for Supervision of Communications, Information Technology, and Mass Media (Roskomnadzor) and prohibits circumvention of blocked sites; legislation passed in July 2025 expanded bans on non-compliant providers, blocking services like ProtonVPN and Mullvad, with individual users facing fines of up to 30,000 rubles (about $300 USD) for violations. Iran imposes de facto bans on VPNs bypassing the Smart Filtering system, with authorities intermittently arresting users and providers during crackdowns, as seen in 2022-2025 enforcement waves under the Computer Crimes Law. In the United Arab Emirates (UAE), unlicensed VPNs are prohibited under Federal Decree-Law No. 34 of 2021 on combating information technology crimes, particularly for voice-over-IP evasion, though licensed services for businesses are allowed; penalties include up to one year imprisonment and fines of 500,000 AED (roughly $136,000 USD). Countries with outright bans include North Korea, where VPN possession equates to subversion against the state, punishable by labor camps or execution; Iraq, enforcing a total prohibition since 2015 amid instability; Turkmenistan, blocking all external VPN traffic under state monopoly control; Belarus, criminalizing unapproved tools post-2020 election laws; and Myanmar, with military junta bans since the 2021 coup.
JurisdictionStatusEnforcement Notes
ChinaRestricted (approved only)Government must approve; blocks and fines for evasion.
RussiaRestricted (registered only)Bans on non-compliant VPNs; fines up to 30,000 rubles.
IranBanned for censorship bypassArrests under cybercrime laws.
UAERestricted (licensed only)Imprisonment for unlicensed use.
North KoreaFully bannedSevere penalties including execution.
IraqFully bannedTotal prohibition since 2015.
Permissibility in restricted jurisdictions often requires VPNs to align with regime-enforced logging and filtering, undermining privacy benefits while exposing users to surveillance; users should ensure usage complies with local laws, verify VPN permissibility, and be aware of potential enforcement risks before employing such services. In China, prioritize compliant internet methods or official operator services to mitigate legal risks associated with unapproved VPNs for accessing restricted content, as enforcement varies and can intensify during political events.

Restrictions and Bans

Several countries impose outright bans or severe restrictions on VPN services to enforce internet censorship and prevent circumvention of government controls. In North Korea, VPNs are completely illegal for ordinary citizens, as the regime maintains near-total control over internet access through a domestic intranet called Kwangmyong, with external connectivity limited to elites. Similarly, Turkmenistan enforces a full ban on VPN usage, blocking unauthorized encryption protocols to restrict access to global content. China requires all VPN providers to obtain government approval, rendering unauthorized services illegal since regulations tightened in 2017; users face fines up to 15,000 yuan (approximately $2,100 USD) for violations, and the Great Firewall employs deep packet inspection to detect and block non-compliant VPN traffic. Russia has escalated restrictions, passing laws in July 2025 that ban VPN apps failing to comply with content-blocking orders, leading to the prohibition of services like ProtonVPN and NordVPN; the government maintains a registry of approved providers, with non-compliance resulting in app store removals and fines up to 4 million rubles (about $40,000 USD) for distributors. Iran imposes heavy restrictions, blocking most VPN protocols and prosecuting users under laws against "anti-regime" activities, particularly during protests, with penalties including imprisonment. Other jurisdictions with full or near-full bans include Iraq, where VPNs are outlawed to curb dissent; Myanmar, amid military rule since the 2021 coup; and Belarus, which prohibited unregistered VPNs in 2021 to suppress opposition access to uncensored information. In Kazakhstan, Pakistan, Syria, and Turkey, complete bans target unauthorized VPNs, often enforced through ISP-level blocking and legal penalties for bypassing national firewalls. These measures reflect governments' prioritization of information control over individual privacy, though enforcement varies and some users evade detection via obfuscated protocols.

Enforcement Risks

In jurisdictions where VPNs are restricted or require government approval, such as China, Russia, and Iran, users face tangible enforcement risks including fines, administrative penalties, and imprisonment for employing unauthorized services to circumvent internet controls. These measures target circumvention of state-mandated blocks on foreign websites, social media, and dissenting content, with authorities deploying deep packet inspection and traffic analysis to detect non-compliant VPN traffic. Enforcement intensity correlates with political sensitivity, escalating during periods of unrest or when users access prohibited materials like news outlets or activist networks. China exemplifies aggressive prosecution, where only state-approved VPNs for businesses are permitted since 2017 regulations formalized the ban on unauthorized tools. Individuals caught using illicit VPNs have incurred fines ranging from 500 yuan (about $70) for basic unauthorized access to over 1 million yuan (approximately $145,000) for repeated or commercial-scale violations, as in the 2023 case of a programmer penalized for bypassing the Great Firewall. Providers and sellers face harsher outcomes, including prison terms: in 2017, one operator received a 5.5-year sentence for distributing circumvention software to over 150,000 users. Authorities track operators of unauthorized VPN services through technical monitoring, undercover enforcement operations, user reports, or payment records. Detection often stems from routine audits or tips, with penalties justified under laws against "illegal internet activities" that prioritize national security over individual access rights. Russia's enforcement has intensified via 2025 amendments to its sovereign internet laws, prohibiting promotion or advertisement of VPNs that evade blocks on sites deemed extremist or foreign-agent affiliated, with fines up to 80,000 rubles ($990) for individuals and 500,000 rubles ($6,200) for organizations per violation. Users risk additional penalties of 3,000–5,000 rubles ($38–$64) for deliberately searching restricted content via VPNs, as authorities expand monitoring to include intent-based offenses. Repeated infractions by services can escalate to multimillion-ruble fines, reflecting a strategy to compel compliance or exit from the market, though widespread circumvention persists among tech-savvy users. In Iran, the Supreme Council of Cyberspace criminalized unlicensed VPN use in February 2024, building on prior restrictions to penalize tools evading blocks on platforms like WhatsApp and Instagram during protests. While specific prosecution numbers remain opaque due to state opacity, the regime has disrupted VPN operations and pursued sellers under cybercrime statutes, with users facing potential detention for activism-linked access. Enforcement aligns with broader surveillance, including regime-developed VPNs that log data, heightening risks for genuine privacy seekers amid U.S. sanctions limiting reliable alternatives. Across these regimes, enforcement selectivity favors high-profile cases—such as dissidents or commercial operators—over casual users, but probabilistic detection via ISP logs or endpoint blocks introduces uncertainty. No jurisdiction applies capital punishment for VPN use alone, contrary to occasional misinformation, though cumulative charges (e.g., for sedition) amplify perils. Users in permissive nations like the U.S. encounter negligible risks absent criminal intent, as VPNs remain legal tools, but global providers must navigate data requests under mutual legal assistance treaties.

Provider Comparisons

Evaluation Metrics

Evaluating VPN providers involves assessing multiple objective metrics derived from independent benchmarks, audits, and performance tests, prioritizing those that verify privacy, security, and reliability over marketing claims. Core metrics include verification of no-logs policies through third-party audits, which examine whether providers collect user activity data such as IP addresses, timestamps, or bandwidth usage; for instance, audits by firms like KPMG or Securitum have confirmed strict no-logs adherence for providers like ExpressVPN and Proton VPN, respectively, as of 2025. Security protocols are evaluated via encryption strength, typically AES-256 with perfect forward secrecy, supported by protocols like WireGuard or OpenVPN, alongside features such as DNS/IPv6 leak protection and kill switches, which prevent data exposure during connection drops; these are tested in lab environments for vulnerabilities. Performance metrics focus on quantifiable impacts like download/upload speed retention and latency, measured against baseline connections without VPN; top providers exhibit average speed losses of under 25% on gigabit connections, as determined by controlled tests across multiple servers, with WireGuard often outperforming older protocols in throughput. Users can further validate these metrics personally by utilizing the 30-day money-back guarantees, short-term subscriptions, or free trials offered by many providers to test real-world performance, stability, speed retention, compatibility with various clients, and unblocking efficacy, such as streaming 4K content on YouTube or accessing restricted sites like Google—particularly important for smaller providers prone to unstable connections or slower speeds. Server network scale and geographic distribution—such as the number of locations (e.g., over 3,000 servers in 90+ countries for audited providers)—are benchmarked for accessibility and load balancing, influencing unblocking of geo-restricted content and torrenting support. Jurisdiction plays a causal role in risk assessment, with providers based outside 14-Eyes alliances (e.g., in Switzerland or Panama) facing fewer compelled data disclosure pressures under local laws.
MetricMeasurement ApproachKey Benchmarks
No-Logs VerificationIndependent third-party audits of infrastructure and policiesAnnual reviews confirming zero activity logging, e.g., Proton VPN's 2025 Securitum audit.
Encryption & ProtocolsProtocol compatibility and cipher strength testingAES-256 default; <1% failure rate in leak tests across IPv4/IPv6/DNS.
Speed & LatencyPre/post-VPN throughput on standardized hardware<25% average download loss; e.g., 184 Mbps sustained on budget options like Surfshark.
Jurisdiction RiskLegal framework analysisPreference for non-alliance bases to minimize surveillance cooperation.
Transparency in ownership and funding sources is also scrutinized, as opaque corporate structures can undermine trust, with empirical evidence from past breaches (e.g., provider data handovers) underscoring the need for verifiable claims over self-reported assurances. These metrics enable causal comparisons, revealing that while many providers meet basic standards, only those passing repeated audits and benchmarks deliver reliable protection against surveillance and throttling.

Privacy and Logging Practices

VPN providers vary widely in their logging practices, which encompass records of user connections or activities that can undermine privacy guarantees. Connection logs typically include metadata such as original IP addresses, connection timestamps, session duration, and bandwidth usage, while activity logs capture detailed browsing data like destination IPs, websites visited, and transferred content— the latter being highly invasive as it negates VPN anonymity. Minimal, anonymized server-level logging for operational purposes, such as aggregate bandwidth or crash diagnostics, may occur without compromising individual privacy if not tied to identifiable users. A strict no-logs policy entails retaining no identifiable connection or activity data, preventing providers from responding to legal demands with user-specific information. Verification of such policies relies on independent third-party audits examining infrastructure and code for logging capabilities, rather than self-reported claims alone. For example, NordVPN's policy has undergone multiple Deloitte audits since 2018, confirming no retention of user-identifiable logs. Proton VPN conducts annual audits by external firms, with the 2025 review verifying absence of metadata or activity logs. Mullvad substantiated its no-logs stance in 2023 when Swedish police served a search warrant, but the provider yielded no user data due to lack of records. Conversely, unverified or false no-logs assertions have led to privacy failures; PureVPN claimed zero logging but provided detailed connection and activity data to the FBI in a 2017 U.S. court case involving a suspect's activities. Such incidents highlight risks from providers without rigorous audits or those subject to undisclosed retention. Free or low-cost VPNs often log extensively to monetize data via advertising, exacerbating exposure. Jurisdiction profoundly influences logging feasibility, as membership in surveillance alliances like the Five Eyes (U.S., UK, Canada, Australia, New Zealand), Nine Eyes, or Fourteen Eyes enables data-sharing mandates that can compel logging or disclosure, even absent domestic retention laws. Providers basing operations in non-allied, privacy-centric locales—such as Panama, British Virgin Islands, or Switzerland—face fewer compelled logging risks, lacking mandatory data retention directives and benefiting from robust privacy statutes. Users evaluating providers should cross-reference audited policies against jurisdictional vulnerabilities, as audits alone may not mitigate legal coercion in high-surveillance environments.

Feature and Performance Benchmarks

Feature benchmarks for VPN services evaluate core capabilities such as encryption protocols, server infrastructure, and auxiliary tools designed to enhance security and usability without compromising performance. Leading providers universally employ AES-256-GCM encryption, the industry standard for data protection, often paired with protocols like WireGuard for its efficiency in reducing computational overhead compared to IKEv2 or OpenVPN, which can introduce higher latency in resource-intensive scenarios. Additional features benchmarked include kill switches—mechanisms that terminate internet access upon VPN disconnection to prevent IP leaks—and split tunneling, allowing users to route specific traffic through the VPN while exempting others for optimized local access. Independent evaluations confirm that top services, such as NordVPN and Surfshark, implement these features reliably, with WireGuard enabling up to 20-30% faster connections than legacy protocols under equivalent conditions. Performance benchmarks prioritize empirical metrics like download/upload throughput retention, ping latency, and jitter stability, typically measured against a baseline unprotected connection using tools such as Ookla Speedtest on high-speed fiber links. In 2025 assessments, providers including NordVPN, Surfshark, and ExpressVPN consistently achieved speed losses below 10% when connecting to proximate servers, preserving over 90% of gigabit baseline speeds in urban test environments. For instance, PCMag's tests on a 1Gbps CenturyLink fiber connection in the U.S. identified Surfshark as the leader in median download speeds, followed closely by NordVPN, which exhibited the lowest latency increases suitable for real-time applications like gaming. Latency benchmarks, critical for VoIP and video conferencing, showed increases of 5-15 ms for these providers on regional servers, far outperforming distant connections where losses can exceed 25%.
ProviderAverage Speed Loss (Nearby Servers)Key Performance FeatureTesting Basis
Surfshark<10%WireGuard protocol support1Gbps fiber, median of 10 tests
NordVPN<10%Low-latency optimized servers100Mbps base, daily averages
ExpressVPN<10%High-throughput global networkMultiple regional servers
These results stem from standardized methodologies involving multiple runs to account for network variability, though real-world performance degrades with server overcrowding or transcontinental routing, underscoring the causal role of physical distance and protocol efficiency in throughput. Audits incorporating performance verification, such as NordVPN's 2025 independent review, affirm that advertised features translate to measurable reliability without undisclosed throttling. Benchmarks also test streaming and torrenting efficacy, where top performers unblock geo-restricted content on platforms like Netflix with minimal buffering, achieving sustained transfers above 50Mbps on optimized P2P servers. Variability across providers highlights the importance of selecting based on use case, as budget options may sacrifice speed for cost, while premium services invest in proprietary accelerations like double-VPN routing at the expense of added latency.

Common Misconceptions

Anonymity vs. Privacy

Privacy entails safeguarding personal data and communications from unauthorized observation or access, allowing individuals to control the disclosure of their activities. Anonymity, by contrast, requires that an individual's identity remain untraceable in connection with their online actions, preventing attribution even under scrutiny. VPNs bolster privacy by establishing encrypted tunnels that obscure traffic content from internet service providers (ISPs), websites, and network intermediaries, thereby mitigating risks such as ISP throttling, public Wi-Fi eavesdropping, and third-party tracking via IP addresses. For example, a VPN routes data through its servers, presenting the provider's IP to endpoints while encrypting payloads, which shields users from direct surveillance by entities lacking access to the VPN's infrastructure. This mechanism effectively transfers visibility of unencrypted traffic from the ISP to the VPN operator, enhancing confidentiality against routine monitoring but introducing dependency on the provider's practices. VPNs fall short of providing anonymity, however, because the provider inherently observes the user's originating IP address, connection timestamps, and decrypted traffic volume—metadata sufficient for identification when correlated with external data or legal demands. Even with audited no-logs policies, such as Proton VPN's, verified in September 2025 to retain no activity or metadata records, anonymity remains elusive: providers can face court orders to enable logging prospectively, and historical cases demonstrate compliance in jurisdictions with weak privacy protections. Audits, like those by KPMG for ExpressVPN in June 2025 confirming no retention via TrustedServer RAM-only systems, assess policy implementation but not enforcement resilience or runtime breaches. In practice, achieving anonymity demands layered approaches beyond VPNs, such as onion routing via Tor, which distributes traffic across volunteer nodes without a central authority holding full user data. VPNs alone, marketed for privacy enhancement, risk conflation with anonymity in consumer narratives, yet empirical analyses confirm their limitation to confidentiality against specific observers rather than comprehensive untraceability. Providers in privacy-friendly jurisdictions, like Switzerland for Proton, offer stronger assurances through legal barriers to data handover, but causal reliance on any single entity undermines anonymity's core requirement of diffused trust.

Universality of Protection

Virtual private networks (VPNs) encrypt internet traffic between a user's device and the VPN server, thereby concealing the origin IP address from internet service providers (ISPs) and local network observers, but this protection is not universal across all data flows or threats. Traffic exiting the VPN server toward destination websites remains unencrypted unless secured by separate protocols like HTTPS, exposing content to interception by the server or intermediaries. Additionally, VPNs do not inherently shield against device-level vulnerabilities, such as malware that captures keystrokes or screen contents before encryption occurs. A common misconception is that VPNs prevent all forms of data leakage; however, empirical tests reveal frequent vulnerabilities including DNS leaks, where domain resolution queries bypass the encrypted tunnel and reveal browsing intentions to ISPs. In a 2018 evaluation of 74 VPN providers, 15 exhibited IP, DNS, or WebRTC leaks, demonstrating that even purportedly secure services can fail under standard conditions. WebRTC leaks, stemming from browser APIs designed for real-time communication, can disclose local or public IP addresses despite an active VPN connection if not explicitly disabled in browser settings. Further limitations arise from configuration dependencies and protocol weaknesses; for instance, split tunneling allows selected traffic to evade the VPN entirely, undermining protection for those routes. Connection drops without a kill-switch feature can expose unencrypted traffic, as documented in analyses of VPN failure modes. IPv6 traffic often remains unprotected if the VPN lacks dual-stack support, potentially routing alongside IPv4 through the ISP. These issues underscore that VPN efficacy varies by provider implementation, user setup, and threat model, requiring supplementary measures like DNS-over-HTTPS and browser extensions for comprehensive safeguarding.

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