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Lenny Lipton
Lenny Lipton
Lenny Lipton
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Leonard Lipton (May 18, 1940 – October 5, 2022) was an American author, filmmaker, lyricist, and inventor. At age 19, Lipton wrote the poem that became the basis for the lyrics to the song "Puff, the Magic Dragon". He wrote books on independent filmmaking and was a pioneer in the field of projected three-dimensional imagery. Leonard Lipton developed 3D theater technology that is used in RealD 3D theaters. His technology is used to show 3D films on more than 30,000 theater screens worldwide.

Key Information

In 2021, he published The Cinema in Flux, an 800-page illustrated book on the history of cinema technology.

Early life

[edit]

Lipton was born in Brooklyn, New York. He majored in physics at Cornell University after starting out in electrical engineering. A self-described "mediocre student", he only excelled once he found a field he loved. Lipton urged schools to be more "accepting of eccentric people with a different point of view because we are the people who make the difference."[1]

Career

[edit]

Puff, the Magic Dragon

[edit]

Lipton was 19 when he wrote the poem that was adapted into the lyrics for the 1963 song "Puff, the Magic Dragon", performed by Peter, Paul and Mary. His inspiration was a 1936 Ogden Nash poem, "The Tale of Custard the Dragon". "Pirates and dragons, back then, were common interests in stories for boys", Lipton said. "The Puff story is really just a lot like Peter Pan." Lipton spent decades denying that the song was about marijuana and believed that the myth was created by New York columnist Dorothy Kilgallen.[2]

Independent films

[edit]

In the 1960s, Lipton shot several experimental films on 16 mm stock, most with running times of less than 10 minutes. The best known, Let a Thousand Parks Bloom, a 27-minute film about Berkeley's People's Park, played at the Tate Liverpool Museum and the Whitney Museum of American Art.[3][4] The following decade, he wrote two books on technologies and methods for independent filmmakers: Independent Film Making (1972) and The Super 8 Book (1975). Lipton on Filmmaking, a compendium of his magazine writings, was published in 1979.[5]

Stereography

[edit]

Lipton was a pioneer in the field of projected three-dimensional imagery and was one of the creators of the electronic stereoscopic display industry.[6][1] His interest dated back to his childhood in New York where he attended movie palaces, with some films shown in 3D. He drew his own 3D comics using red and green crayons on tracing paper, which were viewed using primitive glasses constructed of cardboard tubes and magnifying lenses.[7]

Royalties from "Puff the Magic Dragon" and Independent Filmmaking, which remained in print for 20 years, gave Lipton an independent income that allowed him to follow his interests. His career in stereoscopic display began to gel around 1972. In one early stint, he served as the "convergence setter" for the 1983 3D film Dogs of Hell, determining for each shot the optimal position at which to cross the dual lens axes. Previewing a scene from the film, technical staff from Universal were impressed by the stereoscopic imagery.[5]

He built a prototype of a flicker-free, field-sequential 3D display system and founded StereoGraphics Corporation in 1980 to fund development. The system worked by doubling the display rate of images, thereby overcoming a problem inherent in 3D motion picture projection, where each eye views only half the available images.[8] In 1989, he patented the active ZScreen polarization filter that uses a circularly polarized liquid crystal filter placed in front of a projector, which can then display both the left and right halves of a stereo pair. After Real D Cinema acquired StereoGraphics in 2005, the technology became the basis for the RealD cinema system.[9] The system is in use in more than 30,000 screens worldwide.[10] Lipton was the chief technology officer at RealD until 2009, when he left to do independent consulting.[11]

Lipton published his definitive treatment of the subject, Foundations of the Stereoscopic Cinema: A Study in Depth, in 1982.[12] In 2011, the International 3D Society gave him its Century Award for Lifetime Achievement.[13] As of 2015, he held 68 stereography-related patents.[2]

History of motion picture technology

[edit]

In 2021, Lipton published The Cinema in Flux: The Evolution of Motion Picture Technology from the Magic Lantern to the Digital Era.[14] In the 800-page illustrated book, Lipton argues that film scholars mistakenly consider inventions that preceded the 19th century motion picture cameras from Thomas Edison and the Lumières brothers as prehistory. Lipton sets the genesis of the medium to 1659 and Dutch physicist Christiaan Huygens' invention of the magic lantern, marking the first time moving images were projected on a screen. The book divides the history into three eras: glass, celluloid, and digital. Flux's origins date back to 2009, when Lipton was speaking at the Cinémathèque Française, whose museum happened to be exhibiting a history of magic lantern technology. His subsequent research led him to the Academy of Motion Pictures Arts and Sciences' Margaret Herrick Library, the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers digital library, The Library of Congress's collection of motion picture periodicals, and some 400 books.[15]

Film historian Laurent Mannoni, the curator of collections at the Cinémathèque Française, wrote that the book represents "the first time that this vast technical and aesthetic history has been told by an inventor-technician-physicist-industrialist, who has himself filed patents for cinematographic inventions, run a company and made films. His point of view is both authoritative and fascinating since, until now, no conventional historian has had such varied credentials...."[16]

In his foreword, Douglas Trumbull wrote that Lipton "is on the trail of a vitally important nexus between the illusion of motion and the story contained within that illusion." Each new innovation raises the question of whether theater will become "an even more high-powered juggernaut of immersive and experiential technical perfection"—a theme park ride with no heart—or remain an emotional experience relying on the traditional talents of screenwriters, directors, and actors. "Lenny Lipton delivers the background we need to help make sure that our beloved art form does not go off the rails."[17]

Personal life and death

[edit]

Lipton was married to Julie and had four children. He died from brain cancer in Los Angeles, on October 5, 2022, at age 82.[18]

Books

[edit]
  • Independent Filmmaking (1972)[19]
  • The Super 8 Book (1975)[20]
  • Lipton on Filmmaking (1979)[21]
  • Foundations of the Stereoscopic Cinema: A Study in Depth (1982)[22]
  • The CrystalEyes Handbook (1991)[23]
  • Puff, the Magic Dragon: Peter Yarrow, Lenny Lipton, Eric Puybaret (2007)[24]
  • The Cinema in Flux: The Evolution of Motion Picture Technology from the Magic Lantern to the Digital Era (2021)[25]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Lenny Lipton

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia

Leonard "Lenny" Lipton (May 18, 1940 – October 5, 2022) was an American inventor, filmmaker, author, and lyricist renowned for his pioneering contributions to electronic stereoscopic technology and for penning the poem that inspired the to the folk song "."
Born in , Lipton developed an early interest in film through a childhood , later studying physics at after initially pursuing . At age 19, while a student, he composed a poem titled "" in a notebook left at Peter Yarrow's apartment, which Yarrow adapted into for the 1962 hit, though Lipton received no songwriting credit.
Lipton's most significant achievements centered on 3D technology; he founded StereoGraphics Corporation in 1980 and invented CrystalEyes, the first electronic LCD shutter glasses enabling stereoscopic viewing for and professional applications, earning a award in 1996. Over his career, he amassed approximately 70 patents related to stereoscopic systems, including alternating polarized screens and electronic controls that facilitated the digital projection of 3D feature films in cinemas. Recognized as the "father of the electronic stereoscopic display industry," Lipton's innovations underpinned modern 3D cinema resurgence, and he authored The Cinema in Flux (2021), a historical analysis of projection technologies. Lipton died of brain cancer at age 82.

Early Life and Education

Childhood and Family Background

Leonard Lipton was born Leonard Lipschitz on May 18, 1940, in , New York. His father, Samuel Lipschitz, owned a and introduced him to at age eight by gifting him a toy 16-millimeter projector, which ignited Lipton's early fascination with projection and cinema. Samuel died when Lipton was 12 years old, leaving his mother, Carrie (née Hibel), a homemaker, to raise him. Lipton grew up in a working-class Jewish family in , where he developed an interest in three-dimensional films from attending local movie palaces that screened early 1950s 3D features and comic books. This environment, combined with the technical curiosity sparked by his father's gift, laid the groundwork for his later innovations in , though his immediate childhood pursuits were more aligned with self-taught tinkering than formal training.

Academic Pursuits and Early Interests

Lipton enrolled at in the late 1950s, initially pursuing before switching to physics, the field in which he completed his undergraduate degree. As a physics major, he shared academic circles with peers like , with whom he collaborated informally on creative projects amid his studies. During his freshman year in 1959, Lipton demonstrated an early penchant for poetry by composing a verse inspired by Ogden Nash's 1936 work "The Tale of Custard the Dragon," which later formed the basis for the lyrics of "." This creative output occurred alongside his scientific coursework, highlighting a blend of analytical and artistic inclinations from an early stage in his academic career. Lipton's fascination with stereoscopic imaging traced back to childhood in New York, where exposure to 3D films screened in local theaters during the early 1950s ignited his interest; he responded by sketching his own three-dimensional comics. These pursuits foreshadowed a technical curiosity that persisted through his , though his formal studies remained grounded in conventional scientific principles rather than applied at the time.

Career Beginnings

Songwriting and "Puff, the Magic Dragon"

Leonard Lipton, a freshman at , composed the poem "" in the spring of 1959, drawing inspiration from childhood readings and Ogden Nash's "Custard the Dragon." Lipton typed the four-stanza verse on a roommate's after descending a ski slope and observing the lights of , evoking themes of autumnal melancholy and lost innocence. The poem personifies a dragon named Puff who laments the departure of his companion, Jackie Paper, symbolizing the end of youthful imagination rather than any coded reference to drug use, as Lipton and collaborator consistently maintained. Lipton's roommate, Victor Koenigsberg, discovered the poem and shared it with , a fellow Cornell alumnus visiting the campus. Yarrow, then forming the folk trio , adapted the poem into song lyrics and composed the melody, retaining Lipton's original wording with minor additions like the refrain "A dragon lives forever, but not so little boys." The group recorded the track in 1962 for their self-titled debut album, released by Warner Bros. Records on May 26, 1962, with the single following in January 1963. It peaked at No. 2 on the chart on October 12, 1963, selling over 1 million copies and earning gold certification. Though Lipton's songwriting output remained limited primarily to this work, the royalties from "Puff" provided substantial financial support for his pursuits in independent filmmaking and stereoscopic innovation throughout the and beyond. He received co-writing credit alongside Yarrow, reflecting the poem's foundational role, and later reflected on the song's enduring cultural impact without pursuing further musical endeavors.

Entry into Filmmaking

Lipton's entry into filmmaking occurred in the mid-1960s amid the American counterculture movement, where he immersed himself in the Area's experimental scene as a self-taught filmmaker. His early interest in cinema stemmed from childhood visits to grand movie palaces, such as the Ambassador and Paramount, facilitated by his mother. By the decade's start, while reviewing films for the underground Berkeley Barb newspaper, Lipton transitioned from criticism to production, shooting short experimental works on stock using borrowed equipment. His debut film, Happy Birthday, Lenny (1965), a 7.5-minute color sound piece categorized as a personal diary or journal entry, captured intimate, stream-of-consciousness elements reflective of the era's ethos. This was followed by other brief experimental shorts, typically under 10 minutes, including We Shall March Again, Below the Fruited Plain, The Dunes of Turo, and Ineluctable Modality of the Visible, which explored abstract visuals, countercultural themes, and perceptual experiments often screened through cooperatives like the Film-Makers' Cooperative. These works, distributed via indie networks, marked Lipton's initial foray into independent production without formal training or institutional support, aligning with the DIY spirit of underground cinema. By the late 1960s, Lipton expanded to shorts like Doggie Diner and the Return of Doggie Diner (1969), blending humor and social observation in a period when he balanced filmmaking with emerging interests in stereoscopy. His independent approach culminated in authorship of guides like Independent Filmmaking (published in the 1970s), which codified techniques for aspiring low-budget creators, drawing directly from his hands-on experiences. This phase laid the groundwork for later professional credits, such as production assistant on One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1975), bridging experimental roots to mainstream involvement.

Technical Innovations

Development of Stereoscopic Technologies

Lipton initiated research into electronic stereoscopic displays in the early 1970s, focusing on field-sequential systems that alternate left- and right-eye images at high refresh rates to produce without traditional anaglyph or polarized methods. His approach addressed longstanding issues in , such as flicker caused by insufficient frame rates in cathode-ray tube (CRT) displays, by requiring doubled refresh rates—typically 120 fields per second for flicker-free viewing—synchronized with (LC) shutter eyewear that blocks alternate eyes in phase with the image sequence. In 1980, Lipton founded StereoGraphics Corporation to commercialize these advancements, building on a flicker-free field-sequential 3D system he had developed earlier. By 1981, the company demonstrated a practical flickerless stereoscopic projection technique using LC shutter glasses, which became foundational for subsequent cinema implementations deployed on over 80,000 screens worldwide. This innovation enabled time-multiplexed compatible with standard video signals, overcoming bandwidth limitations of simultaneous left-right image transmission by leveraging rapid electronic switching. A pivotal invention was the ZScreen electro-optical modulator, introduced in 1988 as the first polarization-based device for flicker-free field-sequential 3D, which modulated light polarization to separate left- and right-eye views without mechanical shutters, finding applications in molecular modeling and aerial mapping visualization. Lipton also pioneered CrystalEyes, the inaugural electronic stereoscopic eyewear using LC shutters for wireless, battery-powered operation, facilitating real-time 3D viewing on CRT monitors at 120 Hz. These developments culminated in over 70 U.S. patents related to stereoscopic imaging, including methods for ghosting reduction and format conversion, establishing electronic as a viable alternative to passive polarization systems.

Founding of StereoGraphics Corporation

Lenny Lipton founded StereoGraphics Corporation in 1980 in , to develop and market electronic stereoscopic technologies for realistic three-dimensional imagery viewing. The company's inception was driven by Lipton's prior invention of a flicker-free, field-sequential system, which required dedicated funding and resources for refinement and commercialization beyond individual experimentation. The founding marked Lipton's shift to full-time focus on stereoscopy, leveraging the prototype as the core technology platform to produce industry-applicable products, including early shutter glasses and modulators. StereoGraphics aimed to address longstanding challenges in stereoscopic projection, such as flicker and viewer discomfort, by prioritizing field-sequential methods that alternated left- and right-eye images at high frequencies synchronized with liquid crystal shutters. This approach stemmed from Lipton's empirical testing of display refresh rates and optical modulation, confirming that rates above 72 Hz per eye minimized visual artifacts without relying on anaglyph or polarization techniques prone to color distortion or limited compatibility. Initial operations emphasized prototyping scalable components, with the company securing early patents and demonstrations to validate viability; for instance, by 1981, Lipton showcased a flickerless projection method that laid groundwork for subsequent products like the ZScreen modulator. StereoGraphics' structure as a specialized firm enabled targeted R&D, distinguishing it from broader media ventures and positioning it to supply hardware to , , and entertainment sectors seeking immersive depth cues without mechanical compromises.

Key Patents and Inventions

Lipton secured over 70 patents in the field of electronic stereoscopic displays, focusing on advancements in shutter systems, projection technologies, and viewing devices that enabled practical, flicker-free 3D experiences. His inventions addressed longstanding challenges in , such as synchronization between left- and right-eye images, brightness loss in polarized systems, and viewer comfort, primarily through liquid crystal-based solutions developed during his tenure at StereoGraphics Corporation, which he co-founded in 1980. A foundational invention was the CrystalEyes wireless liquid crystal shutter glasses, first commercialized in 1985, which alternated opacity for each eye in sync with field-sequential video signals to produce immersive stereoscopic images without the flicker or weight issues of mechanical alternatives. This system, recognized by the Smithsonian Institution in 1996 as a pivotal contribution to computer graphics and video display technology, laid the groundwork for modern active shutter 3D eyewear. The underlying technology stemmed from Lipton's early experiments in the 1970s with ferroelectric liquid crystals and twisted nematic modes for rapid switching. Key patents include US 4,967,268 (issued December 30, 1990), which details a shutter system for field-sequential stereoscopic imaging, transmitting synchronized left- and right-eye fields while blocking the opposite eye's view to prevent and ghosting. Another significant patent, US 5,327,289 (issued July 5, 1994), covers a fast-switching 270-degree twisted nematic device optimized for , achieving sub-millisecond response times essential for high-frame-rate stereoscopic video without perceptible flicker. For projection systems, US 7,857,455 B2 (issued December 28, 2010) describes a method for combining orthogonally polarized P- and S-rays in multi-path stereoscopic setups, enhancing by unused components that traditional polarizers discard.
Patent NumberTitle/DescriptionIssue DateKey Innovation
US 4,967,268 shutter system for stereoscopic applicationsDecember 30, 1990Synchronized field selection for flicker-free 3D viewing via LCD opacity modulation.
US 5,327,289Fast switching twisted nematic LCD for eyewearJuly 5, 1994Rapid response for high-refresh-rate in portable devices.
US 7,857,455 B2Combining P and S rays for bright stereoscopic projectionDecember 28, 2010Light-efficient polarization combining to mitigate brightness loss in 3D cinema projectors.
US 7,002,618Plano-stereoscopic DVD movie formatFebruary 21, 2006Encoding scheme for distributing stereoscopic content on standard DVDs with planar compatibility.
These patents, often assigned to StereoGraphics, influenced subsequent commercial systems, including those acquired by RealD in , though Lipton's work emphasized electronic time-multiplexing over passive polarization for superior image quality and reduced artifacts. His innovations prioritized causal mechanisms of and fusion, drawing from physiological rather than empirical trial-and-error alone, enabling scalable applications from personal computing to large-scale theater projection.

Writings and Publications

Books on Stereoscopy

Lipton published Foundations of the Stereoscopic Cinema: A Study in Depth in 1982 through Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. The 318-page hardcover volume examines the history, principles, and technical implementation of stereoscopic motion pictures, emphasizing systems such as anaglyphic, polarized, and lenticular projection. Illustrated with black-and-white drawings and photographs, it includes an appendix addressing three-dimensional television technologies. The book analyzes stereoscopic imaging from physiological and optical perspectives, detailing , convergence, and accommodation cues essential to in cinema. Lipton draws on empirical observations of viewer responses and historical precedents, critiquing limitations like ghosting artifacts in polarized systems and in anaglyphs, while advocating for electronic shuttering advancements he pioneered. It prioritizes causal mechanisms of over speculative aesthetics, grounding claims in verifiable optical experiments rather than unsubstantiated artistic preferences. Regarded as a foundational text, the work has influenced subsequent stereoscopic engineering and remains cited in technical literature for its rigorous dissection of pre-digital 3D cinema challenges. Critics noted its omission of topics like 3D animation and special effects processes, attributing this to a deliberate focus on core projection methodologies amid the era's analog constraints. No other Lipton-authored volumes exclusively address stereoscopy, though his later The Cinema in Flux (2021) incorporates related technological evolutions within broader motion picture history.

Contributions to Motion Picture History

Lenny Lipton significantly advanced stereoscopic motion picture by developing electronic systems that enabled flicker-free , addressing longstanding issues with earlier mechanical and optical methods. His innovations shifted from niche applications to viable commercial cinema formats, particularly through field-sequential displays that alternated left- and right-eye images at high speeds synchronized with shutter glasses. This approach minimized visual artifacts like flicker and ghosting, which had plagued prior 3D films. In 1980, Lipton founded StereoGraphics Corporation to commercialize his prototype for an electronic stereoscopic display system, leading to the invention of CrystalEyes, the first wireless LCD shutter glasses for 3D viewing, introduced in the mid-1980s. These glasses, powered by infrared synchronization, facilitated immersive 3D experiences in professional settings and early theatrical trials. More critically, Lipton's team developed the Z-Screen, an electro-optical modulator using ferroelectric liquid crystals to rapidly switch polarization states, allowing single-projector digital systems to deliver polarized 3D images without mechanical alternation. The Z-Screen became foundational for modern projection. Lipton's technologies were licensed to RealD, where he served as during the 2000s revival of 3D cinema, powering systems in over 25,000 theaters worldwide by the early 2010s and enabling blockbusters such as Avatar (2009). He secured approximately 70 patents related to stereoscopic screens, modulators, and eyewear, many of which underpin passive and active 3D formats still in use. Lipton also contributed scholarly works, including Foundations of the Stereoscopic Cinema (1982), which synthesized the technical history of 3D filmmaking from early experiments to electronic advances. His efforts bridged analog limitations with digital projection, fostering a resurgence in stereoscopic content that influenced production techniques and audience engagement in motion pictures.

Personal Life

Relationships and Family

Lipton was married to Julie Lipton, with whom he shared a home in Los Angeles's Laurel Canyon. The couple had three children: Anna, , and . No public records detail prior relationships or extended family members.

Later Years and Residence

In the years following his tenure as at RealD, which ended in 2009 after the company's 2005 acquisition of StereoGraphics Corporation, Lipton resided in , . He continued to engage with stereoscopic technology through occasional interviews and reflections on his inventions, such as the ZScreen device that underpinned cinema projection systems used in over 80,000 theatrical screens worldwide. Lipton lived with his wife, Julia Lipton, in until his death, maintaining a focus on his legacy in 3D filmmaking amid advancements in the field he helped pioneer.

Death and Legacy

Cause and Circumstances of Death

Leonard Lipton died on October 5, 2022, at the age of 82, from brain cancer. His death occurred at in , , following a battle with the disease. Lipton's wife, Julia Lipton, confirmed the cause to , while his son Noah provided details to . No additional circumstances beyond the progression of brain cancer were reported in contemporary accounts from family or medical sources.

Impact on Film Technology and Culture

Lipton's invention of the ZScreen electro-optical polarization modulator in the 1980s represented a breakthrough in flicker-free stereoscopic projection, enabling time-sequential 3D displays without the visual discomfort associated with earlier systems. This technology, developed through StereoGraphics Corporation which he founded in 1980, formed the core of electronic stereoscopic systems that transitioned 3D cinema from novelty to viable commercial format. By modulating light polarization rapidly to alternate left- and right-eye images, the ZScreen addressed longstanding technical barriers, such as ghosting and eye strain, paving the way for sustained audience engagement in stereoscopic viewing. As at RealD from 2005 to 2009, Lipton oversaw the integration of his patents into projectors, which powered the global rollout of polarized during the late revival. His portfolio of over 70 patents, including shutter glasses like CrystalEyes and projection modulators, influenced the production of major films such as those employing RealD's platform, enhancing and spatial storytelling in live-action and animated features. This technological foundation supported brighter, higher-contrast 3D images compatible with standard silver screens, reducing costs and logistical hurdles for theaters compared to dual-projector anaglyph or mechanical setups. Culturally, Lipton's advancements shifted from fringe experimentation—rooted in his 1960s short films—to a mainstream tool for immersive narrative, influencing filmmakers to incorporate depth as a deliberate cinematic element rather than gimmick. His work democratized access via affordable and scalable projection, fostering a in 3D content that peaked with blockbusters in the , though it also sparked debates on spectacle versus substance in visual effects-driven cinema. By correcting historical misconceptions through writings like The Cinema in Flux, Lipton emphasized causal links between projection mechanics and perceptual realism, informing industry standards and academic discourse on how alters viewer empathy and scene interpretation.

References

  1. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/21/arts/music/lenny-lipton-dead.html
  2. https://variety.com/2022/film/obituaries-people-news/lenny-lipton-dead-puff-the-magic-dragon-3d-movies-1235411994/
  3. https://www.jonpeddie.com/blog/in-memory-of-lenny-lipton/
  4. https://archivesusie3d.wixsite.com/3-dlegends/lenny-lipton
  5. https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/music/music-news/lenny-lipton-dead-puff-magic-dragon-1235235205/
  6. https://www.lennylipton.com/index.htm
  7. https://www.cgw.com/Press-Center/News/2011/International-3D-Society-Names-Lenny-Lipton-Cent.aspx
  8. https://www.smpte.org/blog/3d-pioneer-lenny-lipton-passes-away
  9. https://www.spie.org/news/lenny-lipton-obit
  10. https://thecinemainflux.com/lennylipton/
  11. https://physicsworld.com/a/once-a-physicist-lenny-lipton/
  12. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/39285
  13. https://lennylipton.wordpress.com/2009/02/24/thank-you-puff-the-magic-dragon/
  14. https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/puff-the-magic-dragon/
  15. https://film-makerscoop.com/filmmakers/lenny-lipton
  16. https://lennylipton.wordpress.com/2010/03/18/how-shuttering-eyewear-came-to-be/
  17. https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/journals/optical-engineering/volume-51/issue-2/021103/Brief-history-of-electronic-stereoscopic-displays/10.1117/1.OE.51.2.021103.pdf
  18. https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/conference-proceedings-of-spie/1083/0000/Compatibility-Of-Stereoscopic-Video-Systems-With-Broadcast-Television-Standards/10.1117/12.952876.pdf
  19. https://vfxvoice.com/lenny-lipton-projecting-history-through-the-magic-lantern/
  20. https://history.siggraph.org/exhibitor/stereographics-corporation/
  21. https://lennylipton.wordpress.com/2010/01/27/inventing-crystaleyes-part-1-3/
  22. https://www.csmonitor.com/1986/0422/avid.html
  23. https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/journals/optical-engineering/volume-51/issue-02/021103/Brief-history-of-electronic-stereoscopic-displays/10.1117/1.OE.51.2.021103.full
  24. https://patents.google.com/patent/US4967268A/en
  25. https://patents.justia.com/assignee/stereographics-corporation
  26. https://patents.justia.com/inventor/lenny-lipton
  27. https://www.abebooks.com/9780442247249/Foundations-Stereoscopic-Cinema-Lipton-Lenny-0442247249/plp
  28. http://www.stereoscopic.org/library/
  29. https://www.bibliomania.ws/pages/books/82795/lenny-lipton/foundations-of-the-stereoscopic-cinema-a-study-in-depth
  30. http://www.3dmagic.com/Liptonreviews.htm
  31. https://us.amazon.com/stores/author/B001HPV2CM/about
  32. https://www.springer.com/gp/about-springer/media/press-releases/corporate/cinema-in-flux/19142918
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