Early Muslim conquests

The early Muslim conquests or early Islamic conquests (Arabic: الْفُتُوحَاتُ الإسْلَامِيَّة, romanized: al-Futūḥāt al-ʾIslāmiyya), also known as the Arab conquests, were a series of wars initiated in the 7th century by Muhammad, the prophet of Islam. He established the first Islamic state in Medina, Arabia that expanded rapidly under the Rashidun Caliphate and the Umayyad Caliphate, culminating in Muslim rule being established in Asia, Northern Africa, and Southern Europe over the following century. According to historian James Buchan: "In speed and extent, the first Arab conquests were matched only by those of Alexander the Great, and they were more lasting." At their height, the territory that was conquered by the Arab Muslims stretched from Iberia (at the Pyrenees) in the west to India (at Sind) in the east; Muslim control spanned Sicily, most of the Middle East and North Africa, and the Caucasus and Central Asia.

Among other drastic changes, the early Muslim conquests brought about the collapse of the Sasanian Empire and great territorial losses for the Byzantine Empire. Explanations for the Muslim victories have been difficult to discover, primarily because only fragmentary sources have survived from the period. American scholar Fred McGraw Donner suggests that Muhammad's establishment of an Islamic state in Arabia coupled with ideological (i.e., religious) coherence and mobilization constituted the main factor that propelled the early Muslim armies to successfully establish, in the timespan of roughly a century, one of the largest empires in history. Estimates of the total area of the combined territory held by the early Muslim polities at the conquests' peak have been as high as 13,000,000 square kilometres (5,000,000 sq mi). Most historians also agree that, as another primary factor determining the early Muslim conquests' success, the Sasanians and the Byzantines were militarily and economically exhausted from decades of warfare against each other.

It has been suggested that Jews and some Christians in Sasanian and Byzantine territory were dissatisfied and welcomed the invading Muslim troops, largely because of religious conflict in both empires. However, confederations of Arab Christians, including the Ghassanids, initially allied themselves with the Byzantines. There were also instances of alliances between the Sasanians and the Byzantines, such as when they fought together against the Rashidun army during the Battle of Firaz. Some of the lands lost by the Byzantines to the Muslims (namely Egypt, Palestine, and Syria) had been reclaimed from the Sasanians only a few years prior to the Muslim conquests.

Arabia was a region that hosted several cultures, some urban and others nomadic Bedouin. Arabian society was divided along tribal and clan lines, with the most important divisions being between the "southern" and "northern" tribal associations. Both the Byzantine and Sasanian empires competed for influence in Arabia by sponsoring clients; in turn, Arabian tribes sought the patronage of the two rival empires to bolster their own ambitions. The Lakhmid kingdom, which covered parts of what is now southern Iraq and northern Saudi Arabia was a client of Persia, and in 602 the Persians deposed the Lakhmids to take over the defense of the southern frontier. This left the Persians exposed and overextended, helping to set the stage for the collapse of the Persian Empire later that century. Southern Arabia—especially what is now—Yemen, had for thousands of years been a wealthy region that had been a center of the spice trade. Yemen had been at the center of an international trading network linking Eurasia to Africa, and Yemen. It had been visited by merchants from East Africa, Europe, the Middle East, India and even from as far away as China. In turn, the Yemeni were skilled sailors, travelling up the Red Sea to Egypt and across the Indian Ocean to India and down the east African coast. Inland, the valleys of Yemen had been cultivated by a system of irrigation that had been set back when the Marib Dam was destroyed by an earthquake in about 450 AD. Frankincense and myrrh had been greatly valued in the Mediterranean region, being used in religious ceremonies. However, the conversion of the Mediterranean world to Christianity had significantly reduced the demand for these commodities, causing a major economic slump in southern Arabia which helped to create the impression that Arabia was a backward region.

Little is known of the pre-Islamic religions of Arabia, but it is known that the Arabs worshipped gods such as al-Lāt, Manat, al-Uzza, and Hubal, with the supreme deity in their pantheon being Allah (God). There were also Jewish and Christian communities in Arabia, particularly in regions like Yemen and Najran, and aspects of Arab culture and religious practices reflected their influence. Arabian society during this time was primarily tribal, with strong kinship ties and a code of honor known as murūwah, which emphasized bravery, loyalty, and hospitality.

Pilgrimage was a significant part of Arabian religious life, and one of the most important pilgrimage sites was Mecca, which housed the Kaaba, considered a sacred sanctuary. The Kaʿbah was a central site of worship and was surrounded by 360 idols representing various deities. The region also had an annual fair and market called Ukāẓ, where tribes gathered for trade, poetry competitions, and diplomacy. Poetry was a vital cultural element, with poets serving as both entertainers and historians, preserving the oral traditions of their tribes.

The Arabian Peninsula served as a hub for trade routes connecting the Roman Empire, Persian Empire, Byzantine Empire, and Indian subcontinent. The cities of Mecca and Medina—then known as Yathrib—prospered due to their strategic location along these trade routes. Mecca, in particular, was an important commercial center and a place of truce where violence was prohibited, especially during the pilgrimage season.

According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad, a merchant from Mecca, began receiving revelations through the archangel Gabriel, in which he was told that he was the last of the prophets, completing the message of monotheism brought by prophets such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus (known as Isa in Islam). His teachings emphasized the worship of one God (Allah) and social justice, which brought him into conflict with the elite of Mecca, who opposed his message.