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The Kaaba (Arabic: ٱلْكَعْبَة, romanized: al-Kaʿba, lit. 'the Cube'),[a] also spelled Kaʽba, Kaʽbah or Kabah, sometimes referred to as al-Kaʽba al-Musharrafa (Arabic: ٱلْكَعْبَة ٱلْمُشَرَّفَة, romanized: al-Kaʿba l-Mušarrafa, lit. 'the Honored Ka'ba'),[b] is a stone building at the center of Islam's most important mosque and holiest site, the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Saudi Arabia.[2][3][4] It is considered by Muslims to be the Baytullah (Arabic: بَيْت ٱللَّٰه, lit. 'House of God') and determines the qibla (Arabic: قِبْلَة, lit. 'direction of prayer') for Muslims around the world.

Key Information

In early Islam, Muslims faced in the general direction of Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem as the qibla in their prayers before changing the direction to face the Kaaba, believed by Muslims to be a result of a Quranic verse revelation to Muhammad.[5]

According to Islam, the Kaaba was rebuilt several times throughout history, most famously by Ibrahim and his son Ismail,[6] when he returned to the valley of Mecca several years after leaving his wife Hajar and Ismail there upon Allah's command. The current structure was built after the original building was damaged by a fire during the siege of Mecca by the Umayyads in 683 CE.[1] Circling the Kaaba seven times counterclockwise, known as Tawaf (Arabic: طواف, romanized: tawaaf), is a Fard rite for the completion of the Hajj and Umrah pilgrimages.[4] The area around the Kaaba where pilgrims walk is called the Mataaf.

The Kaaba and the Mataaf are surrounded by pilgrims every day of the Islamic year, except the 9th of Dhu al-Hijjah, known as the Day of Arafah, on which the cloth covering the structure, known as the Kiswah (Arabic: كسوة, romanized: Kiswah, lit. 'Cloth'), is changed. However, the most significant increase in their numbers is during Ramadan and the Hajj, when millions of pilgrims gather for Tawaf.[7] According to the Saudi Ministry of Hajj and Umrah, 6,791,100 external pilgrims arrived for the Umrah pilgrimage in 1439 AH (2017/2018 CE).[8]

Etymology

[edit]

In Arabic, the literal meaning of the word Ka'bah (Arabic: كعبة) is cube. Therefore, the most popular etymology has been that the Kaaba was named after its kaʿb form.[9] Some have questioned that the cubic sense of kaʿb is pre-Islamic, seeking etymologies elsewhere.[10] One disputed hypothesis suggests that the name "Kaaba" is related to the southern Arabian or Ethiopian word "mikrab", signifying a temple.[11][12] Another relates it to Kʿbt, which is related to the Kaaba of Najran.[13]

History

[edit]
See also: Hejaz, History of Islam, and History of Saudi Arabia
The Black Stone is seen through a portal in the Kaaba.[14]

The architectural style of the Meccan Kaaba is shared by a number of pre-Islamic religious buildings, which have broadly been labelled as Kaabas. They are primarily known from the Arabian Peninsula, but some have also been found in other regions, including the Kaaba of Zoroaster.[15] Imoti contends that there were numerous such Kaaba sanctuaries in Arabia at one time, although only the Meccan Kaaba was built of stone.[16] The Black Stone of the Kaaba has been compared to pre-Islamic religious stones called baetyls, which were often black, thought to be of meteorite origins, and venerated in houses or temples of worship for a particular deity.[17] Imoti argues that the other Kaabas also allegedly had their own counterparts of the Black Stone. There was a "Red Stone", in the Kaaba of the South Arabian city of Ghaiman; and the "White Stone" in the Kaaba of al-Abalat (near modern-day Tabalah). Grunebaum, in Classical Islam, points out that the experience of divinity of that period was often associated with the fetishism of stones, mountains, special rock formations, or "trees of strange growth."[18]

In Islamic cosmology, the Zurah pilgrimage site was the precursor to the Kaaba.[19]

Before Muhammad

[edit]
See also: Pre-Islamic Arabia and Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia

Patricia Crone has cast doubt on the claim that Mecca was a major historical trading outpost.[20][21] Other scholars such as Glen Bowersock disagree and assert that it was.[22][23]

In pre-Islamic Arabic poetry attributed to Zuhayr ibn Abi Sulma, the builders of the Kaaba are said to be the Quraysh and Jurhum tribes.[24] Christian J. Robin argues that the Kaaba may have become prominent in the last decades of the 6th century in the aftermath of the military defeat of Abraha by the Quraysh.[25] However, Peter Webb, based on pre-Islamic poetry, argues that the Kaaba was never a prominent site of pilgrimage and that it largely played a local role in Western Arabia as opposed to a pan-Arabian one.[26]

According to Islamic tradition, the pre-Islamic Kaaba was a site of worship for various Arabian Bedouin tribes, who would make pilgrimage once every lunar year, setting aside their tribal feuds.[27] The Kaaba hosted 360 pagan idols (potentially one representing each day of the year) including sculptures and paintings before Islam, notably including a statue of Hubal, the principal idol of Mecca.[28][29] Paintings of angels, of Ibrahim holding divination arrows, and of Isa (Jesus) and his mother Maryam (Mary), which Muhammad spared.[30] Undefined decorations, money and a pair of ram's horns were recorded to be inside the Kaaba.[28] The pair of ram's horns were said to have belonged to the ram sacrificed by Ibrahim in place of his son Ismail as held by Islamic tradition.[28] Islamic tradition traces the polytheism of the Kaaba to the descendants of Ishmael who settled around the Zamzam Well and gradually turned it away from its original monotheist practice during the time of Abraham.[31] The Book of Idols by Hisham ibn al-Kalbi describes the origins of idolatry at the Kaaba: about 400 years before the birth of Muhammad, a man named 'Amr ibn Luhay, who descended from Qahtan and was the king of Hijaz, placed an idol of Hubal on the roof of the Kaaba. This idol was one of the chief deities of the ruling Quraysh tribe. The idol was made of red agate and shaped like a human, but with the right hand broken off and replaced with a golden hand. When the idol was moved inside the Kaaba, it had seven arrows in front of it, which were used for divination.[32] To maintain peace among the perpetually warring tribes, Mecca was declared a sanctuary where no violence was allowed within 30 km (20 mi) of the Kaaba. This combat-free zone allowed Mecca to thrive not only as a place of pilgrimage, but also as a trading center.[33] A king named Tubba' is considered the first one to have a door be built for the Kaaba according to sayings recorded in Al-Azraqi's Akhbar Makka.[34]

Alfred Guillaume, in his translation of the Ibn Ishaq's seerah, says that the Kaaba itself might be referred to in the feminine form.[35] Circumambulation was often performed naked by men and almost naked by women.[31] It is disputed whether Allah and Hubal were the same deity or different. According to a hypothesis by Uri Rubin and Christian Robin, Hubal was only venerated by Quraysh and the Kaaba was first dedicated to Allah, a supreme god of individuals belonging to different tribes, while the pantheon of the gods of Quraysh was installed in the Kaaba after they conquered Mecca a century before Muhammad's time.[36]

Ptolemy and Diodorus Siculus

[edit]

Writing in the Encyclopedia of Islam, Wensinck identifies Mecca with a place called Macoraba mentioned by Ptolemy.[37][11] G. E. von Grunebaum states: "Mecca is mentioned by Ptolemy. The name he gives it allows us to identify it as a South Arabian foundation created around a sanctuary."[38] In Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam, Patricia Crone argues that the identification of Macoraba with Mecca is false and that Macoraba was a town in southern Arabia in what was then known as Arabia Felix.[39] A recent study has revisited the arguments for Macoraba and found them unsatisfactory.[40]

Based on an earlier report by Agatharchides of Cnidus, Diodorus Siculus mentions a temple along the Red Sea coast, "which is very holy and exceedingly revered by all Arabians".[41] Edward Gibbon believed that this was the Kaaba.[42] However, Ian D. Morris argues that Gibbon had misread the source: Diodorus puts the temple too far north for it to have been Mecca.[43]

In the Quran

[edit]

In the Qur'an, from the era of the life of Muhammad, the Kaaba is mentioned by the following names:

  • al-Bayt (Arabic: ٱلْبَيْت, lit. 'the house') in 2:125 by Allah[Quran 2:125]
  • Baytī (Arabic: بَيْتِي, lit. 'My House') in 22:26 by Allah[Quran 22:26]
  • Baytik al-Muḥarram (Arabic: بَيْتِكَ ٱلْمُحَرَّم, lit. 'Your Inviolable House') in 14:37 by Ibrahim[Quran 14:37]
  • al-Bayt al-Ḥarām (Arabic: ٱلْبَيْت ٱلْحَرَام, lit. 'The Sacred House') in 5:97 by Allah[Quran 5:97]
  • al-Bayt al-ʿAtīq (Arabic: ٱلْبَيْت ٱلْعَتِيق, lit. 'The Ancient House') in 22:29 by Allah[Quran 22:29]

The Qur'an contains several verses regarding the origin of the Kaaba. It states that the Kaaba was the first House of Worship for mankind, and that it was built by Ibrahim and Ismail on Allah's instructions:[44][45][46]

Verily, the first House (of worship) appointed for mankind was that at Bakkah (Makkah), full of blessing, and a guidance for mankind.

— Quran, Surah Al Imran (3), Ayah 96[47]

Behold! We gave the site, to Ibrahim, of the (Sacred) House, (saying): "Associate not anything (in worship) with Me; and sanctify My House for those who compass it round, or stand up, or bow, or prostrate themselves (therein in prayer)."

— Quran, Surah Al-Hajj (22), Ayah 26[48]

And remember Ibrahim and Ismail raised the foundations of the House (With this prayer): "Our Lord! Accept (this service) from us: For Thou art the All-Hearing, the All-knowing."

— Quran, Al-Baqarah (2), Ayah 127[49]

Ibn Kathir, in his famous exegesis (tafsir) of the Quran, mentions two interpretations among the Muslims on the origin of the Kaaba. One is that the temple was a place of worship for mala'ikah (angels) before the creation of man. Later, a house of worship was built on the location and was lost during the flood in Nuh (Noah)'s time and was finally rebuilt by Ibrahim and Ismail as mentioned later in the Quran. Ibn Kathir regarded this tradition as weak and preferred instead the narration by Ali ibn Abi Talib that although several other temples might have preceded the Kaaba, it was the first Bayt Allah ('House of God'), dedicated solely to him, built by his instruction, and sanctified and blessed by him, as stated in Quran 22:26-29.[50] A hadith in Sahih al-Bukhari states that the Kaaba was the first masjid on Earth, and the second was Al-Aqsa in Jerusalem.[51]

Narrated Abu Dhar: I said, "O Allah's Messenger (ﷺ)! Which mosque was first built on the surface of the earth?" He said, "Al- Masjid-ul-,Haram (in Mecca)." I said, "Which was built next?" He replied "The mosque of Al-Aqsa ( in Jerusalem) ." I said, "What was the period of construction between the two?" He said, "Forty years." He added, "Wherever (you may be, and) the prayer time becomes due, perform the prayer there, for the best thing is to do so (i.e. to offer the prayers in time).

Sahih al-Bukhari 3366[52]

While Abraham was building the Kaaba, an angel brought to him the Black Stone which he placed in the eastern corner of the structure. Another stone was the Maqam Ibrahim, the Station of Abraham, where Abraham stood for elevation while building the structure. The Black Stone and the Maqam Ibrahim are believed by Muslims to be the only remnants of the original structure made by Abraham, as the remaining structure had to be demolished and rebuilt several times over history for its maintenance.[citation needed] After the construction was complete, God enjoined the descendants of Ismail to perform an annual pilgrimage: the Hajj and the Qurban, sacrifice of cattle. The vicinity of the temple was also made a sanctuary where bloodshed and war were forbidden.[Quran 22:26-33]

During Muhammad's lifetime

[edit]
"Muhammad at the Ka'ba" from the Siyer-i Nebi.[53] Muhammad is shown with veiled face, c. 1595 CE.
Miniature from Jami' al-tawarikh, 706 AH (1306/1307CE), depicting Muhammad and others moving the black stone into the Kaaba

During Muhammad's lifetime (570–632 CE), the Kaaba was considered a holy site by the local Arabs. Muhammad took part in the reconstruction of the Kaaba around 600 CE, after its structure was weakened by a fire, and then damaged by a subsequent flood. Sources including Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasūl Allāh, one of the biographies of Muhammad (as reconstructed and translated by Guillaume), as well as Al-Azraqi's chronicle of Mecca, describe Muhammad settling a quarrel between the Meccan clans as to which clan should set the Black Stone in its place. According to Ishaq's biography, Muhammad's solution was to have all the clan elders raise the cornerstone on a cloak, after which Muhammad set the stone into its final place with his own hands.[54][55] The timber for the reconstruction of the Kaaba was purchased by Quraysh from a Byzantine ship that had been wrecked on the Red Sea coast at Shu'aybah. The work was undertaken by a Coptic Egyptian carpenter from the same ship, called Baqum (باخوم Pachomius), the name indicates an Egyptian Origin, The name Pachomius means "eagle" or "falcon", It comes from the Coptic word "akhōm" (eagle/falcon), which originally meant "divine image" in Middle Egyptian.[28][56] Financial constraints during this rebuilding caused Quraysh to exclude six cubits from the northern part of the Kaaba. This portion is what is currently known as Al-Hateem الحطيم or Hijr Ismail حجر اسماعيل.

Muhammad's Isra' is said to have taken him from the Kaaba to the Masjid al-Aqsa and heavenwards from there.[57]

Muslims initially considered Jerusalem as their qibla, or prayer direction, and faced toward it while offering prayers; however, pilgrimage to the Kaaba was considered a religious duty though its rites were not yet finalized. During the first half of Muhammad's time as a prophet while he was at Mecca, he and his followers were severely persecuted which eventually led to their migration to Medina in 622 CE. In 624 CE, Muslims believe the direction of the qibla was changed from the Masjid al-Aqsa to the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, with the revelation of Surah Al-Baqara 2:144.[58] In 628 CE, Muhammad led a group of Muslims towards Mecca with the intention of performing the Umrah, but was prevented from doing so by the Quraysh. He secured a peace treaty with them, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, which allowed the Muslims to freely perform pilgrimage at the Kaaba from the following year.[59]

At the culmination of his mission,[60] in 630 CE, after the allies of the Quraysh, the Banu Bakr, violated the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, Muhammad conquered Mecca. His first action was to remove statues and images from the Kaaba.[30] According to reports collected by Ibn Ishaq and al-Azraqi, Muhammad spared a painting of Mary and Jesus, and a fresco of Ibrahim.[61][30][62]

Narrated Abdullah: When the Prophet entered Mecca on the day of the conquest, there were 360 idols around the Kaaba. The Prophet started striking them with a stick he had in his hand and was saying, "Truth has come and Falsehood has vanished..." (Qur'an 17:81)

— Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, Book 59, Hadith 583

Al-Azraqi further conveys how Muhammad, after he entered the Kaaba on the day of the conquest, ordered all the pictures erased except that of Maryam:

Shihab (said) that the Prophet (peace be upon him) entered the Kaaba on the day of the conquest, and in it was a picture of the angels (mala'ika), among others, and he saw a picture of Ibrahim and he said: "May Allah kill those representing him as a venerable old man casting arrows in divination (shaykhan yastaqsim bil-azlam)." Then he saw the picture of Maryam, so he put his hands on it and he said: "Erase what is in it [the Kaaba] in the way of pictures except the picture of Maryam."

— al-Azraqi, Akhbar Mecca: History of Mecca

After the conquest, Muhammad restated the sanctity and holiness of Mecca, including its Great Mosque (Masjid al-Haram), in Islam.[63] He performed the Hajj in 632 CE called the Hujjat ul-Wada' ("Farewell Pilgrimage") since Muhammad prophesied his impending death on this event.[64]

After Muhammad's conquest of Mecca, it is said that the 360 idols of the Kaaba were destroyed. The Kaaba became a site for the veneration of Allah only, identified as the same God as that of other monotheists. The Kaaba continued to be a site of annual pilgrimage,[28] and Muslims would perform the Salat prayer facing Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem, as instructed by Muhammad, and turning their backs on the pagan associations of the Kabah.[29]

After Muhammad

[edit]
View of the Kaaba, 1718. Adriaan Reland: Verhandeling van de godsdienst der Mahometaanen
Ottoman tiles representing the Kaaba in the 17th century

The Kaaba has been repaired and reconstructed many times. The structure was severely damaged by a fire on 3 Rabi' I 64 AH (Sunday 31 October 683 CE), during the first siege of Mecca in 683 in the war between the Umayyads and 'Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr,[65] an early Muslim who ruled Mecca for many years between the death of ʿAli and the consolidation of power by the Umayyads. 'Abdullah rebuilt it to include the hatīm. He did so on the basis of a tradition (found in several hadith collections) that the hatīm was a remnant of the foundations of the Abrahamic Kaaba, and that Muhammad himself had wished to rebuild it so as to include it.[66]

The Kaaba was bombarded with stones in the second siege of Mecca in 692, in which the Umayyad army was led by al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf. The fall of the city and the death of 'Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr allowed the Umayyads under 'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan to finally reunite all the Islamic possessions and end the long civil war. In 693 CE, 'Abd al-Malik had the remnants of al-Zubayr's Kaaba razed, and rebuilt it on the foundations set by the Quraysh. The Kaaba returned to the cube shape it had taken during Muhammad's time. Its basic shape and structure have not changed since then.[66]

During its history, the Black Stone at the Kaaba has been struck and smashed by a stone fired from a catapult,[67] it has been smeared with excrement,[68] stolen and ransomed by the Qarmatians[69] and smashed into several fragments.[69][28]

During the Hajj of 930 CE, the Shi'ite Qarmatians attacked Mecca under Abu Tahir al-Jannabi, defiled the Zamzam Well with the bodies of pilgrims and stole the Black Stone, taking it to the oasis in Eastern Arabia known as al-Aḥsāʾ, where it remained until the Abbasids ransomed it in 952 CE.[70]

After heavy rains and flooding in 1626, the walls of the Kaaba collapsed and the Mosque was damaged. The same year, during the reign of Ottoman Emperor Murad IV, the Kaaba was rebuilt with granite stones from Mecca, and the Mosque was renovated.

In 1916, after Hussein bin Ali had launched the Great Arab Revolt, during the Battle of Mecca between Arab and Ottoman forces, the Ottoman troops bombarded the city and hit the Kaaba, setting fire to the protective veil.[71][72] This incident was later exploited by the propaganda of the Great Arab Revolt to attempt to demonstrate the impiety of the Ottomans and the legitimacy of the revolt as a holy war.[71][72]

On 15 March 1935, three armed men from Oman attacked and tried to assassinate King Ibn Saud during his performance of Hajj.[73][74][75] He survived the attack unhurt, through the intervention of the crown prince, and the three attackers were killed by bodyguards.[74][75][76]

The Kaaba is depicted on the reverse of 500 Saudi riyal and 2000 Iranian rial banknotes.[77][78]

Al-Azraqi provided the following narrative on the authority of his grandfather:[28]

I have heard that there was set up in al-Bayt (referring to the Kaaba) a picture (Arabic: تمثال, romanized: Timthal, lit. 'Depiction') of Maryam and 'Isa. ['Ata'] said: "Yes, there was set in it a picture of Maryam adorned (muzawwaqan); in her lap, her son Isa sat adorned."

— al-Azraqi, Akhbar Mecca: History of Mecca[3]

The Kaaba came to be considered the axis mundi (world center), with the Gate of Heaven directly above it. The Kaaba marked the location where the sacred world intersected with the profane; the embedded Black Stone was a further symbol of this as a meteorite that had fallen from the sky and linked heaven and earth.[79]

The Kaaba and Masjid al-Haram depicted on a talismanic shirt, 16th or early 17th century
Photographed in 1880 by Muhammad Sadiq
In 1907
Textile cover of the Kaaba (called Kiswah) with Islamic inscriptions calligraphed in Arabic with golden threads
The Kaaba during an expansion phase in 2013

In non-Islamic literature

[edit]

The Khuzistan Chronicle is a short Nestorian (Christian origin) chronicle written no later than the 660s CE covers the history up to the Arab conquest and gives an interesting note on Arabian geography. The section covering the geography starts with a speculation about the origin of the Muslim sanctuary in Arabia:

Regarding the K'bta (Kaaba) of Ibrahim, we have been unable to discover what it is except that, because the blessed Abraham grew rich in property and wanted to get away from the envy of the Canaanites, he chose to live in the distant and spacious parts of the desert. Since he lived in tents, he built that place for the worship of God and for the offering of sacrifices. It took its present name from what it had been, since the memory of the place was preserved with the generations of their race. Indeed, it was no new thing for the Arabs to worship there, but goes back to antiquity, to their early days, in that they show honor to the father of the head of their people.[80]

According to the Asatir, a 10th-century work of Samaritan literature,[81] Ismail and his eldest son Nebaioth built the Kaaba as well as the city of Mecca."[82]

Architecture and interior

[edit]

The Kaaba is a cuboid-shaped structure made of stones. It is approximately 15 m (49 ft 3 in) high with sides measuring 12 m (39 ft 4 in) × 10.5 m (34 ft 5 in) wide.[83][c] Inside the Kaaba, the floor is made of marble and limestone. The interior walls are clad with tiled, white marble halfway to the roof, with darker trimmings along the floor. The floor of the interior stands about 2 m (6 ft 7 in) above the ground area where tawaf is performed.[83][84]

The wall directly adjacent to the entrance of the Kaaba has six tablets inlaid with inscriptions, and there are several more tablets along the other walls. Along the top corners of the walls runs a black cloth embroidered with gold Qur'anic verses. Caretakers anoint the marble cladding with the same scented oil used to anoint the Black Stone outside. Three pillars (some erroneously report two) stand inside the Kaaba, with a small altar or table set between one and the other two. Lamp-like objects (possible lanterns or crucible censers) hang from the ceiling. The ceiling itself is of a darker colour, similar in hue to the lower trimming. The Bāb ut-Tawbah—on the right wall (right of the entrance) opens to an enclosed staircase that leads to a hatch, which itself opens to the roof. Both the roof and ceiling (collectively dual-layered) are made of stainless steel-capped teak wood.[citation needed]

A technical drawing of the Kaaba showing dimensions and elements
Rukn al-Yamani (The Yemeni Corner)

Each numbered item in the following list corresponds to features noted in the diagram image.

  1. The Ḥajar al-Aswad (Arabic: الحجر الأسود, romanized: al-Hajar al-Aswad, lit. 'The Black Stone'), is located on the Kaaba's eastern corner. It is the location where Muslims start their circumambulation of the Kaaba, known as the tawaf.
  2. The entrance is a door set 2.13 m (7 ft 0 in) above the ground on the north-eastern wall of the Kaaba, called the Bāb ar-Raḥmah (Arabic: باب الرحمة, romanized: Bāb ar-Raḥmah, lit. 'Door of Mercy'), that also acts as the façade.[4] In 1979, the 300 kg (660 lb) gold doors made by artist Ahmad bin Ibrahim Badr, replaced the old silver doors made by his father, Ibrahim Badr, in 1942.[85] There is a wooden staircase on wheels, usually stored in the mosque between the arch-shaped gate of Banū Shaybah and the Zamzam Well. The oldest surviving door dates back to 1045 AH (1635–6 CE).[34]
  3. The Mīzāb ar-Raḥmah, commonly shortened to Mīzāb or Meezab is a rain spout made of gold. Added when the Kaaba was rebuilt in 1627, after a flood in 1626 caused three of the four walls to collapse.
  4. This slant structure, covering three sides of the Kaaba, is known as the Shadherwaan (Arabic: شاذروان) and was added in 1627 along with the Mīzāb ar-Raḥmah to protect the foundation from rainwater.
  5. The Hatīm (also romanized as hateem) and known as the Hijr Ismail, is a low wall that was part of the original Kaaba. It is a semi-circular wall opposite, but not connected to, the north-west wall of the Kaaba. It is 1.31 m (4 ft 3+1⁄2 in) in height and 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) in width, and is composed of white marble. The space between the hatīm and the Kaaba was originally part of the Kaaba, and is thus not entered during the tawaf.
  6. al-Multazam, the roughly 2 m (6+1⁄2 ft) space along the wall between the Black Stone and the entry door. It is sometimes considered pious or desirable for a pilgrim to touch this area of the Kaaba, or perform dua here.
  7. The Station of Ibrahim (Maqam Ibrahim) is a glass and metal enclosure with what is said to be an imprint of Ibrahim's feet. Ibrahim is said to have stood on this stone during the construction of the upper parts of the Kaaba, raising Ismail on his shoulders for the uppermost parts.[86]
  8. The corner of the Black Stone. It faces very slightly southeast from the center of the Kaaba. The four corners of the Kaaba roughly point toward the four cardinal directions of the compass.[4]
  9. The Rukn al-Yamani (Arabic: الركن اليمني, romanized: ar-Rukn al-Yamani, lit. 'The Yemeni Corner'), also known as Rukn-e-Yamani or Rukn-e-Yemeni, is the corner of the Kaaba facing slightly southwest from the center of the Kaaba.[4][87]
  10. The Rukn ush-Shami (Arabic: الركن الشامي, romanized: ar-Rukn ash-Shami, lit. 'The Levantine Corner'), also known as Rukn-e-Shami, is the corner of the Kaaba facing very slightly northwest from the center of the Kaaba.[4][87]
  11. The Rukn al-'Iraqi (Arabic: الركن العراقي, romanized: ar-Rukn al-'Iraqi, lit. 'The Iraqi Corner'), is the corner that faces slightly northeast from the center of the Kaaba.
  12. Kiswah, the embroidered covering. Kiswa is a black silk and gold curtain which is replaced annually during the Hajj pilgrimage.[88][89] Two-thirds of the way up is the hizam, a band of gold-embroidered Quranic text, including the Shahada, the Islamic declaration of faith. The curtain over the door of the Kaaba is especially ornate and is known as the sitara or burqu'.[90] The hizam and sitara have inscriptions embroidered in gold and silver wire,[90] including verses from the Quran and supplications to Allah.[91][92]
  13. Marble stripe marking the beginning and end of each circumambulation.[93]

Note: The major (long) axis of the Kaaba has been observed to align with the rising of the star Canopus toward which its southern wall is directed, while its minor axis (its east–west facades) roughly align with the sunrise of summer solstice and the sunset of winter solstice.[94][95]

  • The Bāb at-Tawbah, "Door of Repentance"
    The Bāb at-Tawbah, "Door of Repentance"
  • The Kaaba with the signature minarets. A similar view is printed on the obverse side of 500-riyal (approximately 133 USD) notes in Saudi Arabia.
    The Kaaba with the signature minarets. A similar view is printed on the obverse side of 500-riyal (approximately 133 USD) notes in Saudi Arabia.
  • The Station of Ibrahim (Maqam Ibrahim)
    The Station of Ibrahim (Maqam Ibrahim)
  • The Mīzāb al-Raḥmah
    The Mīzāb al-Raḥmah

Written marble documents inside the Kaaba

[edit]

Inside the Kaaba, there were nine engraved marble stones, all written in the Thuluth script, except for one which is written in prominent Kufic script. In the eastern wall between the door and the Gate of Repentance another document was added by the custodian of the Two Holy Mosques at the time Fahd of Saudi Arabia, regarding his expansion of the mosque, thus bringing the number of documents to ten, all of which are inscribed on white marble.[96]

Islamic sanctities received great attention from the Circassian sultans during the period in which they ruled the Islamic world (784–924 AH, 1382–1517 CE), with the Kaaba receiving significant attention. Of the ten marble slabs chronicling the architectural contributions of various rulers to Al-Masjid al-Haram, two of the slabs pertain to Circassian sultans.[97]

Sultan Barsbay inscription on the slab in Kaaba

One of these two records the achievements of one of the most notable circassians, Sultan Barsbay. The document, dated to 1423 (CE), attests to a wide reconstruction and restoration process in the mosque by the Sultan.[98] The inscription on the slab reads:

بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم ربنا تقبل منا انك انت السميع العليم تقرب الى الله تعالى بتجديد رخام هذا البيت المعظم المشرف العبد الفقير الى الله تعالى السلطان الملك الاشرف ابو النصر برسباي خادم الحرمين الشريفين بلغه الله اماله و زين بالصالحات اعماله بتاريخ سنة ست و عشرين و ثمان مئه

This translates to:

"In the name of God, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful. Our Lord, accept from us that you are the All-Hearing, the All-Knowing. Draw nearer to God Almighty by renewing the marble of this noble and honorable house. The poor servant of God Almighty, the honorable Sultan King Abu al-Nasr Barsbay, Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. May God reach his hopes and adorn his deeds with good deeds. The year eight hundred and twenty-six AH"

Sultan Barsbay portrait
The Circassian Sultan Barsbay

The other of the two circassian slabs is dedicated to Barsbays son, Sultan Qaitbay, known for his great architectural achievements throughout the Islamic world. Dated to 1479 (CE), the document attests to a wide reconstruction and restoration process undertaken by Sultan Sultan Qaitbay for Al-Masjid Al-Haram.[99]

The inscription reads:

بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم ربنا تقبل منا انك انت السميع العليم أمر بتجيد ترخيم داخل البيت مولانا السلطان الأشرف أبو النصر قايتباي خلد الله ملكه يارب العالمين بتاريخ مستهل رجب الفرد عام أربع و ثمانين و ثمانمائة من الهجرة

Which translates to:

"In the name of God, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful. Our Lord, accept from us that You are the All-Hearing, the All-Knowing. He commanded the perfection of melodious chanting inside the house. Our Lord, the honorable and victorious Sultan Qaytbay, may God immortalize his kingdom, Lord of the worlds, on the first of the month of Rajab in the year eight hundred and eighty-four AH."

Significance in Islam

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The Kaaba is the holiest site in Islam,[100] and is often called by names such as the Bayt Allah (Arabic: بيت الله, romanized: Bayt Allah, lit. 'House of Allah').[101][102] and Bayt Allah al-Haram (Arabic: بيت الله الحرام, romanized: Bayt Allah il-Haram, lit. 'The Sacred House of Allah').

Tawaf

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Further information: Hajj and Umrah
Pilgrims perform Tawaf around the Kaaba during Umrah (video)
The Kaaba and the Masjid Al-Haram during Hajj, 2008

Ṭawāf (Arabic: طَوَاف, lit. 'going about') is one of the Islamic rituals of pilgrimage and is compulsory during both the Hajj and Umrah. Pilgrims go around the Kaaba (the most sacred site in Islam) seven times in a counterclockwise direction; the first three at a hurried pace on the outer part of the Mataaf and the latter four times closer to the Kaaba at a leisurely pace.[103] The circling is believed to demonstrate the unity of the believers in the worship of the One God, as they move in harmony together around the Kaaba, while supplicating to God.[104][105] To be in a state of Wudu (ablution) is mandatory while performing tawaf as it is considered to be a form of worship ('ibadah).

Tawaf begins from the corner of the Kaaba with the Black Stone. If possible, Muslims are to kiss or touch it, but this is often not possible because of the large crowds. They are also to chant the Basmala and Takbir each time they complete one revolution. Hajj pilgrims are generally advised to "make ṭawāf" at least twice – once as part of the Hajj, and again before leaving Mecca.[106]

The five types of ṭawāf are:

  • Ṭawāf al-Qudūm (arrival ṭawāf) is performed by those not residing in Mecca once reaching the Holy City.
  • Ṭawāf aṭ-Ṭaḥīyah (greeting ṭawāf) is performed after entering al-Masjid al-Haram at any other times and is mustahab.
  • Ṭawāf al-'Umrah (Umrah ṭawāf) refers to the ṭawāf performed specifically for Umrah.
  • Ṭawāf al-Wadā' ("farewell ṭawāf") is performed before leaving Mecca.
  • Ṭawāf az-Zīyārah (ṭawāf of visiting), Ṭawāf al-'Ifāḍah (ṭawāf of compensation) or Ṭawāf al-Ḥajj (Hajj ṭawāf) is performed after completing the Hajj.

The Tawaf has its origins in the religion of the Najranite pagans, who walked around the Kaaba in an act of devotion to their creator god, Allah (not to be confused with the monotheistic god of Islam by the same name). This practice was adopted by Mohammad after some reform.[107][108][109]

As the Qibla

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Main article: Qibla

The Qibla is the direction faced during prayer.[110] The direction faced during prayer is the direction of the Kaaba, relative to the person praying. Apart from praying, Muslims generally consider facing the Qibla while reciting the Quran to be a part of good etiquette.

Cleaning

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The building is opened biannually for the ceremony of "The Cleaning of the Sacred Kaaba" (Arabic: تنظيف الكعبة المشرفة, romanized: Tanzif al-Ka'bat al-Musharrafah, lit. 'Cleaning of the Sacred Cube'). The ceremony takes place on the 1st of Sha'baan, the eighth month of the Islamic calendar, around thirty days before the start of the month of Ramadan and on the 15th of Muharram, the first month. The keys to the Kaaba are held by the Banī Shaybah (Arabic: بني شيبة) tribe, an honor bestowed upon them by Muhammad.[111] Members of the tribe greet visitors to the inside of the Kaaba on the occasion of the cleaning ceremony.[112]

The Governor of the Makkah Province and accompanying dignitaries clean the interior of the Kaaba using cloths dipped in Zamzam water scented with Oud perfume. Preparations for the washing start a day before the agreed date, with the mixing of Zamzam water with several luxurious perfumes including Tayef rose, 'oud and musk. Zamzam water mixed with rose perfume is splashed on the floor and is wiped with palm leaves. Usually, the entire process is completed in two hours.[113]

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Many Islamic sources include Shia and Sunni sources (Al-Hakim al-Nishapuri,[114] Sibt ibn al-Jawzi,[115] Halabi Shafi'i,[116] Al-Fakihi,[117] Sheikh Abu Zakariyya al-Azdi,[118] Mahmud al-Alusi,[119] Ibn Sabbagh Maliki,[120] Ganji Shafi'i,[121] Saffuri Shafi'i,[122][123] Al-Masudi,[124][125] Zarandi Hanafi,[126][127] Amir San'ani[128]) have written that Ali ibn Abi Talib, the first Imam of the Shiites, was the only person to have been born in the Kaaba.[129][130][131]

See also

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Notes

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References

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Bibliography

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Kaaba

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from Grokipedia
The Kaaba is a cube-shaped granite mausoleum approximately 13 meters high, with sides ranging from 10 to 12 meters, situated at the center of the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, and revered in Islam as the Bayt Allah (Arabic: بَيْت اللَّهِ), or House of God. It defines the qibla (Arabic: قِبْلَة), the orientation for Muslim prayer worldwide, and anchors the Hajj pilgrimage through the tawaf ritual of counterclockwise circumambulation performed by millions annually. In pre-Islamic Arabia, the Kaaba operated as a polytheistic sanctuary enclosing over 360 idols representing tribal deities, drawing pilgrims for trade and worship until Muhammad purged the icons after capturing Mecca in 630 CE, redirecting its purpose toward monotheistic devotion. The edifice, vulnerable to flash floods and sieges, has undergone multiple reconstructions, including a notable Quraysh rebuild around 608 CE and a 17th-century Ottoman refurbishment that established its modern outline, though its core form persists as a symbol of continuity amid recurrent renewal. A key feature is the Black Stone (Arabic: الحجر الأسود, romanized: al-Ḥajar al-Aswad) set into its southeastern corner, a venerated relic integrated into tawaf that empirical tests suggest may derive from meteoritic origins, underscoring the site's blend of ritual tradition and material reality.

Etymology and Terminology

Linguistic and Historical Origins of the Name

The term Kaʿbah (كَعْبَة) derives from the root k-ʿ-b, denoting a or form, directly reflecting the structure's approximate cubic shape, which measures roughly 13.1 meters in and 11-12 meters per side. This aligns with the building's pre-Islamic architectural form, as evidenced by its reconstruction records dating to at least the time of the tribe in the 5th-6th centuries CE, when it retained a similar cuboid profile despite repairs. The root kaʿb also carries connotations of elevation or a high, squared object in lexicography, though the cubic sense predominates in reference to the . Pre-Islamic usage of the term likely emphasized this geometric descriptor rather than a specialized religious , as the Kaʿbah functioned as a cubic (bayt or house) amid tribal pilgrimage sites in , with no attested non- precursors in contemporaneous inscriptions or records. Alternative hypotheses, such as derivation from South Arabian or Ethiopic mikrab ("temple"), proposed by explorer Eduard Glaser in the late based on regional linguistic parallels, lack direct epigraphic support and have been critiqued for overreaching comparative methods without textual attestation in Hijazi dialects. Speculative links to Greek kybos ("") or Hebrew kubyah via Semitic borrowing remain unverified, as kaʿbah aligns internally with Semitic triliteral roots for form without requiring external influence. The name's continuity into Islamic sources, such as early 7th-century references, presupposes its pre-Islamic currency among , corroborated by the absence of alternative designations in surviving or South Arabian trade inscriptions mentioning Meccan cult sites. This linguistic stability underscores the term's descriptive origin tied to observable physical traits, rather than mythological invention, though Islamic later retrojects Abrahamic foundations without independent historical corroboration.

Pre-Islamic History

Ancient References and Archaeological Context

The earliest potential reference to Mecca in non-Islamic sources appears in the Geography of , composed around 150 CE, where he lists "Macoraba" as an inland settlement in at coordinates approximately 21°20'N, 39°50'E, which align roughly with 's location. Scholars since the , including Samuel Bochart, have identified Macoraba with Mecca based on phonetic similarity (Makora- ~ Makka) and positional data, though some modern analyses propose alternative sites in Yemen due to discrepancies in Ptolemy's coordinate system. No explicit mention of the Kaaba itself occurs in Ptolemy or other Greco-Roman texts, such as those of , , or , despite their descriptions of Arabian trade routes and sanctuaries. Subsequent pre-Islamic references remain absent; the first unambiguous non-Islamic attestation of Mecca dates to the Byzantine-Arab Chronicle of 741 CE, over a century after Muhammad's death. Earlier claims, such as a supposed allusion in Diodorus Siculus (1st century BCE), lack direct textual support linking to Mecca or a cubic sanctuary. Assyrian, Babylonian, and South Arabian inscriptions, which document numerous regional cults and settlements from the 1st millennium BCE, contain no references to Mecca or a comparable structure. Archaeological evidence for pre-Islamic Mecca and the Kaaba is limited by Saudi Arabian prohibitions on excavations in the Haram sanctuary and surrounding areas, preserving religious sanctity but hindering empirical verification. No pre-7th-century artifacts, inscriptions, or structures definitively tied to the Kaaba have been unearthed in Mecca, contrasting with abundant material remains from contemporaneous Nabataean, Sabaean, and Himyarite sites elsewhere in Arabia. Recent discoveries of Arabic rock inscriptions in western Arabia, dated potentially to the 5th-6th centuries CE, reference pilgrimage practices but do not specify the Kaaba or Mecca explicitly. This evidentiary gap persists despite Islamic traditions attributing the Kaaba's origins to Abraham (circa 2000 BCE), which lack corroboration from biblical archaeology or regional records.

Role as a Pagan Sanctuary and Idol Worship

Prior to the advent of Islam, the Kaaba in Mecca served as a central sanctuary for polytheistic worship among Arabian tribes, housing idols representative of various deities and drawing pilgrims from across the peninsula for rituals including circumambulation, sacrifices, and divination. Traditional accounts, preserved in Islamic historiographical texts like Hisham ibn al-Kalbi's Book of Idols (compiled around 820 CE), describe the Kaaba as containing approximately 360 idols, often interpreted as corresponding to the days of the lunar year or the major tribes, with statues and stone markers placed inside and around the structure. These reports, while derived from post-event Muslim sources that frame the era as one of idolatrous deviation (jahiliyyah), align on the polytheistic function without contemporary pagan inscriptions to verify exact counts, as archaeological access to Mecca remains restricted by Saudi authorities. The principal deity venerated at the Kaaba was , depicted as a human-like idol of red or imported from the Nabatean region around the CE, positioned atop the structure or within it and used for arrow-based to resolve disputes among custodians. Hubal functioned as the tribal high god for the , who controlled Mecca's pilgrimage economy, with rituals involving oaths sworn by his name and offerings of blood from sacrificed animals poured over the idol. Associated goddesses such as , , and Manat—collectively invoked in pre-Islamic poetry and later referenced in the (53:19-20)—had dedicated shrines nearby, with their idols reportedly brought into the Kaaba during annual fairs, underscoring a syncretic pantheon blending local and imported influences from and . Annual pilgrimages ( in later terminology) to the Kaaba involved nomadic and settled tribes declaring a sacred truce (hurum) to converge on , performing circuits (ṭawāf, Arabic: طَوَاف) around the cube-shaped shrine seven times, touching or kissing embedded in its eastern corner, and engaging in fairs that bolstered the site's economic role. These practices, documented in fragmented pre-Islamic and corroborated by Byzantine traveler accounts from the CE, reflect causal incentives for tribal unity: the Kaaba's neutrality as a shared idol repository mitigated intertribal conflicts, fostering commerce in a harsh environment where water from the and shade from the sanctuary's precincts were vital. Scholarly analysis notes that while Islamic narratives retroactively attribute monotheistic origins to the site (e.g., via Abrahamic legends), from comparative Semitic religions supports its evolution as a pagan betyl—a sacred stone enclosure—common in South Arabian and Nabatean cults, with minimal alteration needed to adapt rituals for emerging .

Islamic History

Quranic Mentions and Theological Claims

The Quran mentions the Kaaba, referred to as al-Bayt ("the House") or explicitly by name in one instance, in verses that link it to Abrahamic monotheism and ritual purity. In Surah Al-Baqarah (2:125-127), it states: "And [mention] when We made the House a place of return for the people and [a place of] security. And take, [O believers], from the standing place of Abraham a place of prayer. And We charged Abraham and Ishmael, [saying], 'Purify My House for those who perform Tawaf and those who are staying [there] for worship and those who bow and prostrate [in prayer].' And [mention] when Abraham said, 'My Lord, make this a secure city and provide its people with fruits—whoever of them believes in Allah and the Last Day.' [Allah] said, 'And whoever disbelieves—I will grant him enjoyment for a little; then I will drive him to the punishment of the Fire, and wretched is the destination.'" These verses portray the Kaaba as a sanctuary established for human assembly, safety from harm, and devotion, with Abraham and Ishmael tasked to elevate its foundations while invoking divine security and provision. Surah Ali 'Imran (3:96-97) identifies the site—termed , an ancient designation for the valley—as "the first House [of worship] established for mankind," declaring it blessed, a guidance for the worlds, containing clear signs including the (Maqam Ibrahim), and offering security to entrants, while mandating upon those able. This establishes a theological primacy, positioning the Kaaba as the inaugural center of predating other religious structures, with inherent sanctity and navigational signs for faith. Al-Ma'idah (5:97) explicitly names the Kaaba as divinely appointed "a of well-being for all people," alongside , offerings, and garlands, underscoring its role in stabilizing communal rites and prohibiting violations therein. Further, Surah Al-Hajj (22:26-29) recounts God assigning the Kaaba's location to Abraham with commands to shun , purify the House for circumambulators, recluses, bowers, and prostrators, and proclaim from distant mounts, culminating in of gratitude, fulfillment of vows, and contact at ancient positions while avoiding impiety. Islamic interprets these as affirming the Kaaba's origin in prophetic , built by Abraham and circa 2000 BCE as a cubic structure symbolizing divine unity, later corrupted by until restored. The structure embodies (God's oneness), serving as the eternal for prayer orientation since 624 CE, though pre-Islamic Arabian paganism involved idol veneration there, per historical accounts reconciled in tradition as deviation from its primordial purpose. These claims emphasize causal continuity from Abrahamic covenant to Islamic obligation, with empirical ritual continuity observed annually by millions, though archaeological evidence for Abrahamic construction remains absent, relying on scriptural assertion.

Transformation Under Muhammad

In January 630 CE, following the violation of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah by the tribe, led an army of approximately 10,000 Muslims from toward , resulting in the bloodless conquest of the city after minimal resistance. Upon entering , granted amnesty to most inhabitants and proceeded directly to the Kaaba, where he performed tawaf () before addressing the idols housed within and around the structure. Muhammad then systematically destroyed the pagan idols inside the Kaaba, a traditional account numbering them at around 360, representing various Arabian tribal deities, with as the principal idol placed atop the structure. He reportedly struck each idol personally or oversaw their removal, declaring for , "Truth has come, and falsehood has perished," echoing Quranic phrasing from Surah Al-Isra 17:81, thereby purging polytheistic elements and restoring the site to monotheistic worship of alone. This act, drawn primarily from early Islamic biographical sources like the Sira of , marked the Kaaba's transformation from a polytheistic to the focal point of Islamic , though archaeological evidence for the idols' exact number or composition remains absent, relying instead on textual traditions. The rededication included cleansing the Kaaba's interior of images and relics associated with pre-Islamic prophets, such as depictions of Abraham and , to align with strict (monotheism), after which Muhammad led prayers and instructed the structure's preservation as a house for Allah's worship. This event solidified Mecca's role in , redirecting pilgrimage practices away from idol veneration toward symbolic acts commemorating Abrahamic origins, as per Islamic theology, while establishing Muhammad's political dominance over the .

Developments After Muhammad's Death

Following 's death in 632 CE, the Kaaba experienced relative stability under the Caliphs (632–661 CE), with primary efforts directed toward expanding the surrounding to accommodate growing pilgrim numbers rather than altering the cube itself; for instance, Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab (r. 634–644 CE) enlarged the mosque's prayer area by approximately 2,270 square meters using simple materials like palm trunks and mud bricks. No major structural reconstructions of the Kaaba are documented during this period, though routine maintenance addressed wear from pilgrimage traffic and environmental exposure. Significant changes occurred during the Second Fitna (680–692 CE), when Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr (Arabic: عبد الله بن الزبير), who controlled independently, demolished and rebuilt the Kaaba around 683 CE to approximate dimensions attributed to Muhammad's era, raising its height to 18 cubits, restoring the semi-circular Hatim enclosure (al-Hijr), and using local stone with wooden reinforcements. This version emphasized theological claims of prophetic fidelity over pre-Islamic Quraish modifications. However, Umayyad forces under Caliph Abd al-Malik (r. 685–705 CE) and general besieged in 692 CE, deploying catapults that damaged the structure; the subsequent Umayyad reconstruction shortened the height, excluded the Hatim from the interior, and reverted closer to the Quraish-era form while preserving Islamic sanctity, a design that endured for centuries. Under later Umayyads, such as (Arabic: الوليد بن عبد الملك, r. 705–715 CE), focus shifted to the mosque's embellishment with mosaics akin to those in the , enhancing aesthetic and symbolic prestige without altering the Kaaba's core form. Abbasid rule (750–1258 CE) saw repairs after floods, including a major deluge in 779 CE (162 AH) that eroded walls and foundations, necessitating reinforcements but no full rebuild until later eras; the structure remained largely intact, reflecting effective custodial practices amid imperial priorities elsewhere. Ottoman sultans prioritized preservation, with Sultan (r. 1623–1640 CE) commissioning a comprehensive rebuild after a 1630 CE collapsed the walls; completed in 1631 CE by overseer Ridwan Agha over six months, it incorporated salvaged stones, added a base for resistance, and measured approximately 13.1 meters high, 11.03 meters wide, and 12.86 meters long—dimensions that have persisted. In the 20th century, Saudi custodians conducted restorations emphasizing durability: a 1958 CE renovation smoothed surfaces and reinforced internals, followed by King Fahd's 1996 CE project, which involved precise wall cladding, drainage improvements, and gilding the Black Stone frame without altering the footprint, amid broader Masjid al-Haram expansions to handle millions of pilgrims annually. These interventions, verified through engineering reports, addressed seismic and hydrological risks in Mecca's valley, prioritizing empirical stability over symbolic redesign.

Physical Description and Architecture

Exterior Structure and Features

The Kaaba is a structure approximately 13.1 meters in height, with a base measuring 11.03 meters by 12.86 meters. Its walls are constructed from gray quarried from the nearby hills of , forming a simple, windowless exterior elevated on a base roughly 25 centimeters high. The is accessed via a wooden stored inside, and the structure lacks any external ornamentation beyond its covering. The exterior is entirely draped in the , a black cloth weighing about 670 kilograms, dyed black and embroidered with Quranic verses in thread along the upper belt and door curtain. The , produced annually in Mecca's King Abdulaziz Complex, spans 658 square meters and incorporates 150 kilograms of and silver wire, replacing the previous covering during the pilgrimage. This covering conceals the stone walls and is secured by additional cloth pieces at the corners, renewed each year to maintain tradition. The Kaaba's four corners bear directional names reflecting ancient Arabian geography: the southeastern Rukn al-Aswad houses ; the southwestern Rukn al-Yamani faces ; the northwestern Rukn al-Shami points toward ; and the northeastern Rukn al-Iraqi aligns with . Pilgrims touch or gesture toward these during tawaf , with —embedded in a silver frame at 1.5 meters height—serving as the starting point. The single door, known as Bab ar-Rahmah (Arabic: باب الرحمة, romanized: Bāb ar-Raḥmah), is located on the northeastern wall, elevated 2.22 meters above ground level, measuring 3.18 meters high and 1.71 meters wide, framed in gold and accessed only by authorized personnel. On the northern roof edge protrudes the Mizab al-Rahmah, a gilded rainwater spout channeling drainage toward the , symbolizing mercy in Islamic tradition. These features emphasize the Kaaba's austere, functional design oriented to ritual use rather than aesthetic display.

Interior Layout and Artifacts

The interior of the Kaaba (ٱلْكَعْبَة) spans approximately 13 meters in length by 9 meters in width, forming an open polygonal space elevated 2.2 meters above the surrounding tawaf area. The floor consists of white paving with black borders and veining in and green, while the lower walls up to about 4 meters are lined with colorful slabs. Above this, green fabric embroidered in with Quranic verses covers the upper walls and extends to the , which features a curtain adorned with white-embroidered texts invoking God's names. Three wooden pillars, constructed from strong dark brown wood and installed during Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr's reconstruction in the late CE, provide structural support for the double-layered . Each pillar measures about 9 meters in height with a of 44 cm and perimeter of 150 cm, spaced roughly 2.35 meters apart, and rests on squared wooden bases; the central pillar connects to the northern and southern walls and holds various gifts. An enclosed aluminum and crystal with 50 steps, renovated in 1996 CE, ascends from the interior to a hatch on the for purposes, secured with a special lock and lacking windows. Key artifacts include ten embedded white marble plaques inscribed in script (nine plaques) and script (one plaque), dating from after the 6th century AH/12th century CE, with contents such as renovation records including one from King Fahd's era. Suspended gold and silver lamps, some Ottoman-era pieces in , silver, and inscribed with Quranic verses and used as burners, illuminate the space; these were often gifted by rulers. Additional items comprise a large box containing oud and Taif rose oils alongside silver burners, and a marker, all set within an otherwise empty chamber adhering to Islamic prohibitions on imagery following the removal of pre-Islamic idols during Muhammad's in 630 CE. Entry to the interior remains highly restricted, permitted only to the appointed custodian (sadanah), cleaning teams during annual rituals, Islamic scholars, and select Saudi-approved dignitaries, ensuring preservation under the oversight of the of the Two Mosques.

The Black Stone (Arabic: الحجر الأسود, romanized: al-Ḥajar al-Aswad): Composition and Significance

The , known as Hajar al-Aswad in , is an irregular, dark rock embedded in a silver frame at the eastern corner of the Kaaba, approximately 1.5 meters above the ground. It consists of multiple fragments, with individual pieces ranging from 9.7 to 27 mm in size, cemented together over time due to historical damage and repairs. Scientific examinations, limited by the stone's sacred status preventing direct sampling, describe it as composed of dark gravels possibly resembling , , or natural , though origin remains unconfirmed and debated among researchers. Pre-Islamic Arabian tribes venerated as a sacred object within the Kaaba, which served as a polytheistic pilgrimage site attracting and others for rituals involving its . Historical accounts indicate it functioned as a fetish or intermediary to deities, with multiple religions honoring it before Islam's emergence. In Islamic tradition, the stone originated from paradise, originally white but darkened by absorbing human sins, and was delivered by the angel Jibril to Prophet Ibrahim during the Kaaba's construction. Prophet Muhammad repositioned it into the Kaaba's wall in 605 CE during reconstruction, resolving a tribal dispute by placing it on a cloth for collective lifting, an event underscoring its role as a communal rather than an object of . Muslims do not attribute divine power to the stone itself; touching or kissing it during tawaf () follows Muhammad's example as a symbolic act of devotion and starting point for rituals, with emphasizing that "it is merely a stone that can neither harm nor benefit." Its significance lies in marking fidelity to prophetic practice amid and , though empirical verification of its paradisiacal origin relies solely on unverified religious narratives. The Black Stone has faced historical disruptions, including its theft on January 12, 930 CE by the Qarmatians (Arabic: قرامطة) under Abū Ṭāhir Sulaymān al-Jannābī (Arabic: أبو طاهر سليمان الجنّابي) during the sack of Mecca (Arabic: هجوم مكة), where they massacred approximately 30,000 pilgrims during the Hajj—viewing pilgrimage rites as pagan—broke it into two pieces and placed them on either side of a latrine pit as an act of desecration, carried it off to their stronghold in Bahrayn (Arabic: البحرين), and held it for approximately 22 years, effectively suspending Hajj (Arabic: الحج) rituals, before it was returned in 952 CE.

Religious Significance

Central Role in Islamic Rituals

The Kaaba functions as the primary focal point for Hajj, the obligatory annual pilgrimage required once in a lifetime for physically and financially able Muslims, and Umrah, the voluntary lesser pilgrimage. These rituals, integral to Islamic practice, draw millions of participants to Mecca each year, with Hajj alone accommodating approximately 2.5 million pilgrims in recent years under Saudi management quotas. During Hajj, which occurs in the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah, pilgrims enter a state of ihram—a ritual consecration involving specific garments and behavioral restrictions—before approaching the Masjid al-Haram and performing initial rites centered on the Kaaba. Umrah can be undertaken at any time and similarly emphasizes devotion through prescribed acts around the structure. A core component of both and is tawaf, the act of circumambulating the Kaaba seven times in a counterclockwise direction, commencing and concluding at the corner containing . Pilgrims recite supplications and Quranic verses during this rite, which symbolizes monotheistic unity and submission to God, as per Islamic tradition. In , multiple tawaf sessions occur: tawaf al-qudum upon arrival, tawaf al-ifadah after the Day of Arafat, and a farewell tawaf before departure. consists of a single tawaf followed by sa'i (Arabic: السعي, romanized: as-saʿī), the brisk walking seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah adjacent to the , commemorating Hagar's search for water. These practices reinforce the Kaaba's status as the spiritual epicenter, directing collective worship toward a singular point of . Beyond pilgrimage, the Kaaba underpins daily Islamic observance by defining the , the direction faced during the five obligatory prayers (), fostering global unity among over 1.8 billion Muslims. However, its ritual prominence peaks during , where additional acts like attempting to touch during tawaf or praying two rak'ahs behind integrate the structure into a sequence of symbolic reenactments of prophetic narratives. Saudi authorities oversee these rituals to ensure orderly execution, with expansions to the surrounding facilitating larger crowds since the 1950s. This centrality underscores the Kaaba's role in perpetuating prescribed devotional acts derived from prophetic example (), though historical continuities with pre-Islamic Arabian practices have prompted scholarly scrutiny regarding their origins.

Qibla Direction and Tawaf Practices

The refers to the direction of the in that worldwide face during the five daily prayers (), established as a unifying element of Islamic worship following its designation in 624 CE. Initially, early Muslims in prayed toward the in , but this changed approximately 16 to 17 months after Muhammad's migration (Arabic: الهجرة, romanized: al-Hijrah) from , during a noon prayer at in , as instructed by Quranic revelation ( Al-Baqarah 2:144). This shift symbolized a return to the Kaaba's monotheistic roots and tested the faith of believers, with some facing opposition from in who viewed the prior direction as a point of alignment. Determining the involves calculating the great-circle bearing from a location's latitude and longitude to 's coordinates (approximately 21.4225° N, 39.8262° E), traditionally using astronomical observations like the sun's position or stars, and modernly via GPS-enabled compasses or apps employing formulas such as the haversine or Vincenty algorithms for sub-degree accuracy. Early mosques from the 7th-8th centuries show varying alignments, sometimes deviating up to 90 degrees due to rudimentary methods, but post-9th century structures align more precisely toward Mecca, reflecting advancements in calculation. In practice, a tolerance of about 45 degrees is often accepted for validity, though precision is emphasized to avoid deliberate error. Tawaf, the ritual of the Kaaba, consists of seven complete counterclockwise circuits (shawts) around its perimeter, beginning and ending at (Hajar al-Aswad) by touching or pointing toward it, performed in the during , , or as voluntary worship. Pilgrims maintain the Kaaba to their left, walking at a brisk pace for men (raml) in the first three circuits of obligatory Tawaf, while reciting supplications and Quranic verses; women proceed at a normal pace. The practice requires ritual purity ( or ), covering of the awrah, and for obligatory Tawaf, entry in the state of ; interruptions invalidate it unless continuous intent is preserved, and it must stay outside the Kaaba's hatim enclosure. Tawaf embodies submission and unity, emulating celestial orbits and pre-Islamic Arabian customs adapted to Islamic monotheism, with each circuit fostering reflection on God's oneness (); it precedes sa'i (walking between Safa and Marwah) in and sequences. Post-Tawaf, two rak'ahs of prayer are offered near , followed by drinking Zamzam (Arabic: زمزم) water. Variations include Tawaf al-Wida (farewell circumambulation) before leaving , obligatory for Hajj pilgrims but recommended for Umrah. Overcrowding during peak seasons, with millions participating annually, necessitates organized lanes, but the core mechanics remain unchanged since the 7th century.

Interpretations in Non-Islamic and Comparative Contexts

![Depiction of the Kaaba by Adriaan Reland, a 17th-century Dutch orientalist][float-right] In pre-Islamic Arabia, the Kaaba functioned as a central pagan shrine where tribes venerated numerous idols, including a statue of Hubal, the chief deity of the Quraysh, alongside approximately 360 other gods represented by stones and figures placed around or inside the structure. Pilgrimage rituals, including circumambulation and animal sacrifices, predated Islam and drew Arabs from across the peninsula to Mecca, reflecting a polytheistic tradition rather than the Abrahamic monotheism later attributed to the site. These practices, documented in early Arabic poetry and Islamic historical accounts, indicate continuity with local Arabian animism and astral cults, where the Kaaba served as an axis mundi linking earthly and divine realms in tribal cosmology. The embedded in the Kaaba's eastern corner, venerated through ritual kissing or touching during pre-Islamic pilgrimages, parallels baetyls—sacred aniconic stones—in ancient Near , often interpreted as s embodying divine presence or fallen from the sky. Scientific analysis, though limited due to religious restrictions on sampling, suggests the stone's composition resembles impact glass from a , akin to artifacts like the conical black stone of transported to Rome in 204 BCE or other venerated aerolites in Hittite and Greek cults. Such stones, lacking intrinsic holiness but imbued with it through cultural attribution, underscore a causal pattern in archaic societies where rare celestial objects symbolized otherworldly power, a motif observable from Arabian to broader Semitic and Indo-European traditions. Non-Muslim scholars, drawing on epigraphic and literary evidence from Nabataean and South Arabian inscriptions, view the Kaaba's and rituals as indigenous developments from regional caravan hubs rather than direct Abrahamic inheritance, with scant pre-seventh-century external corroboration for Meccan centrality. Revisionist historians like have argued that Islamic narratives overlay pagan substrates onto the site, emphasizing empirical gaps such as the absence of archaeological excavations in , which preclude definitive verification of foundational claims. Comparative analysis highlights structural similarities to cubic shrines like the in , a possibly linked to Zoroastrian or pre-Zoroastrian veneration, suggesting in desert nomad spiritual focused on directional orientation and communal gathering. These interpretations prioritize observable continuities in ritual form over theological , attributing the Kaaba's enduring role to socio-economic functions in pre-Islamic networks rather than singular prophetic intervention.

Maintenance and Management

Traditional Cleaning Rituals

The traditional cleaning ritual of the Kaaba, known as Ghusl al-Kaʿbah (Arabic: غُسْل الْكَعْبَة) or the Kaaba washing ceremony, occurs annually on approximately 15 Muharram in the Islamic , following the Fajr prayer. In 2025, this corresponded to July 10, after which barriers were erected around the structure about 30 minutes before Isha prayers to facilitate the private rite. The ceremony symbolizes spiritual purification and reverence for the sacred site, drawing on practices rooted in Islamic tradition for maintaining the Kaaba's sanctity. Performed by the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques—typically King Salman or his designated representative, such as a prince or deputy governor—the ritual involves a small group of dignitaries entering through the Kaaba's door, dressed in traditional white robes (ihram-like attire). The interior walls, floor, ceiling, and door are washed using approximately 40 liters of Zamzam water blended with , oil, and other perfumes. Cloths soaked in this mixture are used to gently rub and wipe the surfaces, ensuring thorough cleansing without mechanical tools to preserve the site's holiness. Following the washing, the space is perfumed with incense burners (mabkhara) containing , , and high-quality fragrances, filling the chamber with aromatic scents that linger as a mark of devotion. This step completes the ritual, after which the door is resealed until the next occasion. While some accounts mention occasional additional cleanings before or , the Muharram event remains the primary traditional observance, upheld by Saudi authorities as a custodial tracing back to historical practices of Kaaba .

Kiswah Covering and Modern Upkeep

The , the black silk cloth that envelops the Kaaba, measures approximately 14 meters in height and weighs around 2,000 kilograms, woven from high-quality silk imported and dyed black with Qur'anic verses embroidered in and silver thread along its upper and lower borders. Production occurs at the King Abdulaziz Complex for the Kiswah in Mecca's Umm al-Joud district, established in 1962 and expanded since, employing traditional weaving techniques combined with modern machinery to ensure durability against environmental exposure. The fabric incorporates reinforcements for structural integrity, and the process involves rigorous laboratory testing of materials to maintain quality standards set by Saudi authorities. ![Calligraphy on Cover of Kaba.jpg][float-right] Annually, the is replaced on the first day of , marking the , in a conducted by the General for the Affairs of the Two Holy Mosques; for instance, the 1446 AH replacement occurred on July 4, 2024, involving 159 technicians who hoist the new covering after removing the old one post-Asr prayer. The old is then distributed in pieces to Islamic institutions worldwide as a symbolic , a practice formalized under Saudi custodianship to preserve the site's sanctity without commercial exploitation. During interim periods, such as post-Ramadan or pre-Hajj, targeted includes tightening the kiswah's belt, securing edges, and repairing to counteract wear from pilgrim contact and weather. Modern upkeep of the Kaaba extends beyond the kiswah to encompass periodic cleaning, perfuming, and structural inspections supervised by the Ministry of Finance's Projects Management Office and the General Presidency. These efforts involve sweeping the interior floor, washing surfaces with Zamzam scented by and oils, and applying protective coatings to elements, conducted several times yearly—such as after or during low-pilgrim periods—to mitigate dust, humidity, and human traffic impacts. Saudi initiatives also include advanced climate control systems and non-invasive monitoring technologies to preserve artifacts like the Black Stone's casing, ensuring empirical longevity without altering historical features. This regime reflects a centralized state approach prioritizing verifiable preservation over decentralized or interpretive methods, with documented interventions logged for transparency.

Saudi Oversight and Expansions

Following the Saudi forces' capture of Mecca on , 1924, during the conquest of the , the Al Saud dynasty established control over the , encompassing the Kaaba, with subsequent unification of the kingdom in 1932 formalizing national oversight of the holy sites. Saudi kings have served as custodians, with the title "Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques" officially adopted by King Fahd bin Al Saud in 1986 to denote responsibility for the Grand Mosque in Mecca and the Prophet's Mosque in Medina. Day-to-day management falls under the General Presidency for the Affairs of the Grand Mosque and the Prophet's Mosque, a government body tasked with maintenance, ritual cleaning, security, infrastructure upgrades, and facilitating access for millions of annual pilgrims and worshippers, including coordination of logistics. To address overcrowding from surging pilgrimage numbers—rising from under 100,000 performers in the early to over 2.5 million by the —Saudi authorities initiated phased expansions of the starting under King Abdulaziz Al Saud in the 1920s and accelerating post-1950. The first major Saudi project, launched in 1955 under King Saud, extended the mosque's perimeter, replaced the mataf ( area) flooring with , added four minarets (bringing the total to nine), and preserved several Ottoman-era gates while increasing capacity to approximately 150,000 worshippers. A second expansion under King Fahd in the incorporated multi-level galleries, new prayer halls, and roof expansions, boosting the total area to over 356,000 square meters and accommodating up to 700,000 simultaneous worshippers through elevated structures and air-conditioned sections. The third Saudi expansion, initiated by King Abdullah in 2008 and substantially completed by 2015, expropriated adjacent land for northern and western extensions, added the Nusayreen and Marwa projects, and integrated advanced engineering like 90,000-ton cooling capacity, elevating the mosque's footprint to around 1.5 million square meters with a peak capacity exceeding 2 million. Ongoing phases under King Salman and Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman, including post-2020 infrastructure enhancements, focus on vertical expansions, digital monitoring, and seismic reinforcements to sustain annual Hajj volumes amid population growth in Muslim-majority countries.

Controversies and Debates

Challenges to Abrahamic Origins

The Islamic tradition, as recorded in the (Arabic: القرآن) (e.g., Al-Baqarah 2:127) and later hadiths, asserts that the Kaaba was originally constructed by the prophets Abraham and as a monotheistic around the early 2nd millennium BCE, with subsequent corruptions by polytheists until its rededication by (Arabic: محمد) in 630 CE. However, this narrative lacks corroboration from independent historical or archaeological sources predating the CE. No ancient Near Eastern inscriptions, biblical texts, or extrabiblical records mention Abraham traveling to the Hijaz region or erecting a structure there, despite detailed accounts of his activities in and . Archaeological surveys of the Mecca valley reveal no evidence of Bronze Age settlements or monumental architecture consistent with an Abrahamic-era foundation. The site's arid, narrow topography—lacking arable land or perennial water sources beyond seasonal wadis—contradicts claims of it serving as an ancient pilgrimage or trade center capable of sustaining such activity. Excavations in the broader Arabian Peninsula, including Nabataean and South Arabian sites, document sophisticated pre-Islamic cults and shrines, but Mecca itself yields primarily post-4th century CE artifacts, with Saudi restrictions limiting systematic digs around the Kaaba due to its sanctity. Classical Greco-Roman geographers, such as Ptolemy in his Geography (c. 150 CE), reference a possible "Macoraba" in interior Arabia, interpreted by some as Mecca, but this is the earliest potential attestation—over 1,500 years after the purported Abrahamic construction—and even this identification remains disputed, as no earlier Assyrian, Persian, or biblical sources note the location. Scholars like have further challenged the Abrahamic linkage by demonstrating the implausibility of Mecca's described role in pre-Islamic trade networks, which relied on incense routes through fertile oases like or rather than the isolated Hijaz. In her 1987 analysis, Crone argues that the economic narratives in Islamic sources appear anachronistic, retrojected to elevate Mecca's sanctity post-Muhammad, with the Abrahamic etiology serving to forge continuity with traditions amid 7th-century competition for legitimacy. While Crone's revisionism, influenced by source-critical methods akin to those applied to biblical , has drawn criticism from traditionalists reliant on sira and compilations (themselves redacted 150–200 years after Muhammad's death), empirical gaps in non-Islamic records undermine claims of deep antiquity, suggesting the Kaaba's monotheistic reframing as a later theological construct atop pre-existing pagan of local deities like . This view aligns with broader historiographical skepticism toward unevidenced prophetic migrations, prioritizing causal factors like 7th-century Arabian tribal consolidation over unverified ancient lineages.

Continuities with Pre-Islamic Paganism

The Kaaba functioned as a major polytheistic sanctuary in , serving as the focal point for tribal pilgrimages and idol veneration among Arabian Bedouins. Historical texts describe it housing approximately 360 idols, each representing deities from various tribes, with —depicted as a human-like figure made of red agate—installed as the chief god by the tribe around the 5th century CE. Pilgrims from across the peninsula converged on during , performing rituals that included (tawaf) of the structure in a counterclockwise direction, similar to modern Islamic practice, often while invoking specific gods or seeking oracles via arrows cast before Hubal's . Key rituals exhibited direct parallels to later Islamic observances, underscoring adaptive continuities rather than wholesale innovation. Pre-Islamic venerated embedded in the Kaaba's eastern corner, touching or kissing it during circuits as a or protective symbol, a custom retained in where pilgrims perform the same act while reciting Islamic supplications. The sa'i ritual—running between the hills of , originally sites of idols to —persisted post-conversion, reframed as commemorating Hagar's search for water. Annual pilgrimages () involved animal sacrifices, head shaving, and seasonal truces, elements integrated into Islam's framework established by 632 CE, with the maintaining custodianship of the shrine. Following Muhammad's (Arabic: فتح مكة, romanized: Fatḥ Makkah) in January 630 CE, the idols were systematically destroyed, including Hubal's statue cast down into the sanctuary's well, yet the Kaaba's cubic form, orientation, and core rites were preserved to facilitate tribal assimilation into . This retention reflects pragmatic continuity, as early Islamic sources acknowledge pre-existing practices while attributing their origins to Abrahamic corrupted by , though no extrareligious archaeological corroboration exists due to restricted excavations in . Epigraphic evidence from Arabian inscriptions confirms motifs but lacks direct ties to the Kaaba, relying instead on later textual traditions that blend pagan customs with theological reinterpretation. Scholars note these overlaps as evidence of Islam's emergence within a polytheistic matrix, where rituals provided cultural scaffolding for doctrinal shift, rather than rupture.

Modern Political and Scholarly Criticisms

Modern scholarly critiques of the Kaaba emphasize the paucity of archaeological and epigraphic evidence supporting its pre-Islamic prominence, with Saudi authorities restricting excavations in Mecca that could verify or refute traditional narratives. Revisionist historians, such as those analyzing classical Greco-Roman and Persian sources, note the absence of references to a major Arabian sanctuary or trade hub at Mecca prior to the 4th century CE, challenging claims of its ancient centrality. Dan Gibson's analysis of early mosque qiblas (prayer directions) posits that orientations from the 7th and 8th centuries align more closely with in modern than , suggesting the Kaaba's role as Islam's focal point may have shifted geographically or evolved later than orthodox accounts maintain; this , while contested by traditionalists favoring great-circle calculations over straight-line assumptions, draws on empirical measurements of over 100 sites. Critics like David King counter that medieval Muslim accounted for distortions, rendering Gibson's data interpretable as intentional approximations rather than errors pointing to an alternate origin. Politically, Saudi custodianship of the Kaaba has faced accusations of instrumentalizing the site for regime legitimacy, as seen in when Grand Mosque imams in praised Crown Prince during sermons amid the Jamal murder fallout, prompting claims of blending religious authority with authoritarian control. In 2019, bin Salman's personal ascent to the Kaaba's rooftop for inspection—unprecedented for non-prophets in conservative interpretations—drew ire from Islamists abroad for perceived disrespect to sacred protocol, while liberals critiqued it as performative modernization. The kingdom's expansions around the , including the 2013-2015 projects adding capacity for millions more pilgrims, have been lambasted for prioritizing revenue-generating infrastructure over heritage preservation, with reports of razing Ottoman-era sites and accelerating commercialization that transforms pilgrimage into a luxury venture. advocates decry the exclusion of non-Muslims from —enforced via checkpoints and passport scans—as discriminatory, barring over 80% of the global population despite the site's pre-Islamic pagan history open to polytheists. Saudi defenders attribute such policies to guardianship of the , but detractors, including reformist Muslims, argue it fosters monopoly power, enabling political leverage like denying visas to dissidents from nations such as in 2016 amid sectarian tensions.

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  126. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/questioning-saudi-control_b_9092254
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