Enver Pasha

İsmâil Enver (Ottoman Turkish: اسماعیل انور پاشا; Turkish: İsmail Enver Paşa; 22 November 1881 – 4 August 1922), better known as Enver Pasha, was an Ottoman Turkish military officer, revolutionary, and convicted war criminal who was a part of the dictatorial triumvirate known as the "Three Pashas" (along with Talaat Pasha and Cemal Pasha) in the Ottoman Empire.

While stationed in Ottoman Macedonia, Enver joined the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), an organization affiliated with the Young Turks movement that was agitating against Sultan Abdul Hamid II's despotic rule. He was a key leader of the 1908 Young Turk Revolution, which reestablished the Constitution and parliamentary democracy in the Ottoman Empire. Along with Ahmed Niyazi, Enver was hailed as "hero of the revolution". However, a series of crises in the Empire, including the 31 March Incident, the Balkan Wars, and the power struggle with the Freedom and Accord Party, left Enver and the Unionists disillusioned with liberal Ottomanism. After the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état brought the CUP directly to power, Enver became War Minister, while Talaat assumed control over the civilian government.

As war minister and de facto Commander-in-Chief (despite his role as the de jure Deputy Commander-in-Chief, as the Sultan formally held the title), Enver was one of the most powerful figures in the Ottoman government. He initiated the formation of an alliance with Germany, and was instrumental in the Ottoman Empire's entry into World War I. He then led a disastrous attack on Russian forces in the Battle of Sarikamish, after which he blamed Armenians for his defeat. Along with Talaat, he was one of the principal perpetrators of the late Ottoman genocides and thus is held responsible for the death of between 800,000 and 1,500,000 Armenians, 750,000 Assyrians and 500,000 Greeks. Following defeat in World War I, Enver, along with other leading Unionists, escaped the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Military Tribunal convicted him and other Unionists and sentenced them to death in absentia for bringing the Empire into World War I and organizing massacres against Greeks and Armenians. Enver ended up in Central Asia, where he was killed leading the Basmachi Revolt against the Bolsheviks. In 1996, his remains were reburied in Turkey. Enver was subsequently rehabilitated by Turkish president Süleyman Demirel, who praised his contributions to Turkish nationalism.

As Enver rose through the ranks of the military, he was known by increasingly esteemed titles, including Enver Efendi (انور افندی), Enver Bey (انور بك), and finally Enver Pasha. "Pasha" was the honorary title granted to Ottoman military officers upon promotion to the rank of Mirliva (major general).

İsmail Enver was born in Constantinople (Istanbul) on 22 November 1881. Enver's father, Ahmed (c. 1860–1947), was either a bridge-keeper in Monastir (Bitola) or an Albanian small town public prosecutor in the Balkans. His mother Ayşe Dilara was a Tatar. According to Şuhnaz Yilmaz, he was of Gagauz descent. His uncle was Halil Pasha (later Kut). Enver had two younger brothers, Nuri and Mehmed Kâmil, and two younger sisters, Hasene and Mediha. He was the brother-in-law of Lieutenant Colonel Ömer Nâzım. At age six, Enver moved with his father to Monastir, where he attended primary school. He studied at several military institutions. In 1902, he graduated from the Ottoman Military Academy making him a mektebli. In the context of the late Hamidian era mekteblis were educated officers hailing from the new military colleges, as opposed to the older alaylı officers which did not receive formal educations, resulting in some in the latter group being illiterate. His classmate in the military academy was the first president of the Turkish Republic Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk), and the two quickly developed a rivalry with one another.

Between 1903 and 1908, Enver was stationed in various locations in Ottoman Macedonia, where he helped suppress the Macedonian Struggle. He fought no less than 54 engagements, mostly against Bulgarian bands, developing a reputation as an expert counter-insurgent. During his service, he became convinced of the need for reforms in the Ottoman military.

By 1905 Enver had achieved success in Macedonia and was recognized for fighting with distinction. He became a lieutenant colonel was awarded the fourth and third class Mecidiye medal, fourth class Osmaniye medal, and a gold medal of merit for his outstanding achievements in military operations against Bulgarian, Greek and Albanian insurgents. This did not mean he was immune from the suspicions of the intelligence agencies. He was interrogated by the secret police for alleged seditious activity against the government, but he was not convicted. These events radicalized Enver's perceptions of nationalism, and a sympathy for the Young Turks as he became skeptical of the Hamidian regime.

Enver, through the assistance of his uncle, Halil Kut, became the twelfth member of the nascent Ottoman Freedom Society (OFS). The OFS later merged with the Paris-based Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) led by Ahmed Rıza. The CUP gained access to the Third Army through Enver. Upon his return to Monastir in 1906, Enver formed a CUP cell within the town and worked closely with Ottoman officer Kâzım Karabekir. Enver became the main figure in the CUP Monastir branch, and he initiated Ottoman officers like Ahmet Niyazi bey and Eyüp Sabri into the CUP organisation.