First Mexican Empire

The Mexican Empire (Spanish: Imperio Mexicano, pronounced [imˈpeɾjo mexiˈkano] ^ⓘ) was a constitutional monarchy and the first independent government of Mexico. It was also the only former viceroyalty of the Spanish Empire to establish a monarchy after gaining independence. The empire existed from 1821 to 1823, making it one of the few modern-era independent monarchies in the Americas. To distinguish it from the later Second Mexican Empire (1864–1867) under Emperor Maximilian, this historical period is commonly referred to as the First Mexican Empire. The empire was led by former Royal Spanish military officer Agustín de Iturbide, who ruled as Agustín I.

The establishment of a monarchy was the initial goal for an independent Mexico, as outlined in the Plan of Iguala, a political document drafted by Iturbide that unified the forces fighting for independence from Spain. Following the signing of the Treaty of Córdoba by the last Spanish viceroy in September 1821, the plan for a Mexican monarchy advanced. Iturbide's popularity reached its peak on May 18, 1822, when public demonstrations called for him to become emperor in the absence of a European royal willing to assume the throne. The Mexican Congress approved the proposal, and Iturbide was crowned in July 1822.

The empire's brief existence was marked by challenges, including disputes over its legitimacy, conflicts between the Congress and the emperor, and a bankrupt national treasury. In October 1822, Iturbide dissolved Congress and replaced it with the National Institutional Junta, composed of his supporters. However, by December of the same year, he began to lose the support of the Mexican Army, which rebelled in favor of restoring the Congress and its democratic powers. Unable to suppress the revolt, Iturbide reconvened the Congress in March 1823 and offered his abdication. Power was then transferred to a republican provisional government of 1823-1824, which abolished the monarchy and established the First Mexican Republic.

The Spanish Empire disintegrated in the wake of Napoleon's invasion of Spain and the overthrow of the Spanish Bourbons in 1808. Throughout Spain and its viceroyalties there was a widespread refusal to recognize Napoleon's brother Joseph I as the new French-backed king of Spain. In New Spain cleric Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, who had long been part of a circle of intellectuals who sought to reform the colonial system, triggered the Mexican War of Independence in 1810, a decade of warfare between insurgents for independence from Spain and royalists seeking to maintain the existing colonial order. The insurgency was initially led by Hidalgo, who was captured and executed in 1811, then succeeded by Father José María Morelos, who was likewise captured and executed in 1815. Remaining insurgents, including Vicente Guerrero, waged guerrilla warfare in the countryside of southern Mexico. Agustín de Iturbide was a Mexican officer in the Spanish army, a member of the Mexican elite loyal to Spain. When Liberals in Spain seized power in 1820, re-established the Spanish Constitution of 1812, forcing limits on the power of Ferdinand VII of Spain and curtailing privileges of established elites and institutions, Mexican elites saw their interests threatened. In view of this, Iturbide sought an alliance with Mexican insurgents, drawing up the Plan of Iguala and gaining the support of insurgent leader Vicente Guerrero and others. They created the Army of the Three Guarantees, which brought about Mexican independence from Spain in September 1821.

The newly constituted movement involved three principles, or "guarantees": that Mexico would be an independent constitutional monarchy governed by a Spanish prince; that Americanos, that is all Mexicans regardless of ethnic category and those born in Spain would henceforth enjoy equal rights and privileges; and that the Roman Catholic Church would retain its privileges and position as the official and exclusive religion of the land. These Three Guarantees formed the core of the Plan of Iguala, the blueprint which, by combining the goal of independence and a constitution with the preservation of Catholic monarchy and Roman Catholicism, brought together all Mexican factions. Under the 24 February 1821 Plan of Iguala, to which most of the provinces subscribed, the Mexican Congress established a regency council which was headed by Iturbide.

Viceroy Juan O'Donojú acceded to the Mexican insurgents' demands, having no other option because he lacked independent resources. He signed the Treaty of Córdoba on 24 August 1821. The Mexican Congress intended to establish a personal union, similar to the arrangement now found among the Commonwealth realms; Ferdinand would remain King of Spain and separately take the throne of a new Mexican kingdom, independent of Spain but sharing a monarch. If the Spanish king refused the position, the plan provided for another member of the House of Bourbon to accede to the Mexican throne. Commissioners from Mexico were sent to Spain to offer the Mexican throne to a Spanish royal, but the Spanish state refused to recognize Mexico's independence and would not allow any other Spanish prince to accept the throne.

With Ferdinand VII having rejected the Treaty of Cordoba, Iturbide's supporters saw an opportunity to place their candidate on the throne. On the night of 18 May, the 1st infantry regiment, stationed at the ex Convent of San Hipólito, and led by sergeant Pio Marcha began a public demonstration in favor of Iturbide being made emperor. The demonstration was joined by other barracks and many civilians as well. When the public demonstration reached his home, Iturbide himself was able to address the demonstrators from his balcony. He consulted with members of the regency on what course to follow, and eventually acquiesced to the demonstrators' demands, agreeing that he should be made emperor. The crowd celebrated the rest of the night with fireworks and celebratory gunfire.

An extraordinary session of congress was held the following morning to deal with the subject of Iturbide's coronation. At the opening of the session, the military addressed a manifesto to congress, endorsing Iturbide to be emperor. The deliberations then started with a few deputies expressing concern that congress was not entirely free in the present circumstances to proceed on the matter. A pro-Iturbide crowd outside of the hall was making so much noise that it was interfering with the deliberations, and congress asked Iturbide to show up in an unsuccessful attempt to calm the crowds. The opposition brought up concerns that a popular demonstration in the capital was not enough of a basis upon which to elect Iturbide and that the provinces ought to be consulted first. A proposal was made to gain the consent of two thirds of the provinces, and this succeeding then to appoint a commission to write a provisional constitution in order to avoid constitutional crises.