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Flight length
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In aviation, the flight length or flight distance refers to the distance of a flight. Aircraft do not necessarily follow the great-circle distance, but may opt for a longer route due to weather, traffic, the use of jet streams, or to refuel.
Commercial flights are often categorized into long-, medium- or short-haul by commercial airlines based on flight length, although there is no international standard definition.
The related term flight time is defined by ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) as "The total time from the moment an aeroplane first moves for the purpose of taking off until the moment it finally comes to rest at the end of the flight", and is referred to colloquially as "blocks to blocks" or "chocks to chocks" time.[1] In commercial aviation, this means the time from pushing back at the departure gate to arriving at the destination gate.[2] Flight time is measured in hours and minutes as it is independent of geographic distance travelled. Flight time can be affected by wind, traffic, taxiing time, and aircraft used.[3]
Short-haul and long-haul
[edit]A flight's length can also be described using the aviation term of "Flight Haul Type", such as "short-haul" or "long-haul". Flight haul types can be defined using either flight distance or flight time.[4]
Time-based definitions
[edit]| Short-haul | Medium-haul | Long-haul | Ultra-long-haul | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ICAO[5][6] | < 8 hours | 8–16 hours | > 16 hours | |
| IATA[4][7][8][9] | < 3 hours | 3–6 hours | 6–16 hours | > 16 hours |
| CAPA [10] | < 6 hours | 6–16 hours | > 16 hours |
Distance-based definitions
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David W. Wragg classifies air services as medium-haul being between 1,600–4,000 km; 900–2,200 nmi; short-haul as being shorter and long-haul as being longer.[11] David Crocker defines short-haul flights as shorter than 1,000 km (540 nmi),[12]: 208 and long-haul as the opposite.[12]: 140
Asia and Australia
[edit]- Hong Kong International Airport considers destinations in the Americas, Europe, the Middle East, Africa, Southwest Pacific and the Indian Subcontinent long-haul and all others are short-haul.[13]
- Japan Air Lines defines routes to Europe and North America as long-haul and all other flights as short-haul.[14]
- Qatar Airways defines all flights from Qatar to the Americas, Australia, and New Zealand as Ultra-long-haul, and all other flights as medium or long-haul.[15]
- Virgin Australia defines domestic flights as within Australia, short-haul as those to South East Asia/Pacific and long-haul as those to Abu Dhabi or Los Angeles.[16]
Europe
[edit]- The European Union defines any passenger flight between city pairs separated by a great circle distance between 1,500 and 3,500 km (800 and 1,900 nmi) to be medium-haul, below as short-haul, and above as long-haul routes.[17]
- Eurocontrol defines "very short-haul" flights as being less than 500 km (270 nmi), short-haul flights being between 500 and 1,500 km, medium-haul flights being between 1,500 and 4,000 km (800 and 2,200 nmi), and long-haul flights as longer than that.[18]
- The Association of European Airlines defined Long-haul as flights to Americas, sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, Australasia and medium-haul as flights to North Africa and Middle East.[19]
- The now defunct airline Air Berlin defined short- and medium-haul as flights to Europe/North Africa and long-haul as those to the rest of the world.[20]
- Air France defines short-haul as domestic, medium-haul as within Europe/North Africa and long haul as the rest of the world.[21]
North America
[edit]- American Airlines defines short-/medium-haul flights as being less than 3,000 mi (2,600 nmi; 4,800 km) and long-haul as either being more than 3000 miles or being the New York–Los Angeles and New York–San Francisco routes.[22]
- United Airlines defines short-haul flights as being less than 700 mi (600 nmi; 1,100 km)[23] and long-haul flights as being greater than 3,000 mi (2,600 nmi; 4,800 km).[24]
Aircraft-based definitions
[edit]Flight Haul Type terminology are sometimes used when referring to commercial aircraft. Some commercial carriers choose to refer to their aircraft using flight haul type terms, for example:
- Delta Air Lines referred to its Boeing 717, MD-88 and MD-90 as short-haul domestic aircraft; Boeing 757, Boeing 737, Airbus A319 and A321 as long-haul domestic; and its transoceanic Boeing 757, 767, 777 and Airbus A330 as long-haul.[25]
- Lufthansa classifies its fleet as: long-haul for wide-body aircraft such as the Airbus A330/Airbus A340, Airbus A350, Airbus A380, Boeing 747, and Boeing 787 Dreamliner; medium-haul for narrow-body aircraft like the Airbus A320 and 737 families; and short-haul for regional jets like the Embraer E-Jets and the Bombardier CRJ-900.[26]
- TUI Airways refers to their Boeing 737 as a short and mid-haul airliner and the Boeing 767 and 787 as long haul.[27]
While they are capable of flying further, long-haul capable wide-bodies are often used on shorter trips. In 2017, - 40% of A350 routes were shorter than 2,000 nmi (2,300 mi; 3,700 km), 50% of A380 flights fell within 2,000–4,000 nmi (2,300–4,600 mi; 3,700–7,400 km), 70% of 777-200ER routes were shorter than 4,000 nmi (4,600 mi; 7,400 km), 80% of 787-9s routes were shorter than 5,000 nmi (5,800 mi; 9,300 km), 70% of 777-200LRs flights were shorter than 6,000 nmi (6,900 mi; 11,000 km).[28]
Superlative flights
[edit]Shortest Commercial Flight
[edit]The Westray to Papa Westray flight in Orkney, operated by Loganair, is the shortest commercial flight in the world, covering 2.8 km (1.7 mi) in two minutes scheduled flight time including taxiing.
Longest Commercial Flight
[edit]The world's longest ever commercial flight was Air Tahiti Nui Flight TN64[29][30] in early 2020. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the impossibility of transit in the United States through Los Angeles International Airport, Air Tahiti Nui scheduled and operated in March and April 2020 Flight TN64 as a non-stop flight between Papeete and Paris-Charles de Gaulle, using a Boeing 787-9 and covering 15,715 km (9,765 mi; 8,485 nmi).[31][32][33] in 16 hours and 20 minutes.[34][35] As of 2023,[update] it continues to hold the record for the longest ever scheduled commercial nonstop flight (by great circle distance) as well as the world's longest domestic flight.[36][37][38][39]
As of November 9, 2020,[update] Singapore Airlines Flights 23 and 24 are the world's longest active commercial flight between Singapore and New York–JFK, covering 15,349 km (9,537 mi; 8,288 nmi) in around 18 hours and 40 minutes, operated by an Airbus A350-900ULR.[40]
Distinctions
[edit]Great-circle distance versus flight length
[edit]
The shortest distance between two geographical points is the great-circle distance. In the example (right), the aircraft travelling westward from North America to Japan is following a great-circle route extending northward towards the Arctic region. The apparent curve of the route is a result of distortion when plotted onto a conventional map projection and makes the route appear to be longer than it really is. Stretching a string between North America and Japan on a globe will demonstrate why this really is the shortest route despite appearances.
The actual flight length is the length of the track flown across the ground in practice, which is usually longer than the ideal great-circle and is influenced by a number of factors such as the need to avoid bad weather, wind direction and speed, fuel economy, navigational restrictions and other requirements. In the example, easterly flights from Japan to North America are shown taking a longer, more southerly, route than the shorter great-circle; this is to take advantage of the favourable jet stream, a fast high-altitude tail-wind that assists the aircraft along its ground track that can save more time or fuel than the geographically shortest route.
Flight distance versus flight duration
[edit]Even for flights with the same origin and destination, a flight's duration can be affected by routing, wind, traffic, taxiing time, or aircraft used.
For example, on the Luxembourg to Bucharest route operated by Luxair, the scheduled flight length remains constant while the flight duration varies depending on aircraft used. On Thursday mornings, Luxair operates a DHC-8 turboprop with a scheduled duration of approximately 3 hours,[41][42] while on Saturday mornings, Luxair's use of an Embraer 190 jet reduces the scheduled duration of the flight down to approximately 2 hours 20 minutes.[41][43]
Human resource management
[edit]The length of a flight has significant human resource management implications.
With longer flights, it becomes less likely that the same crew and aircraft can finish a complete round trip between two airports within a single workday. As the flight length increases, the number of crew members and the number of crews needed greatly increases.
First, for long-haul flights, airlines provide for additional crew members on board to provide in-flight crew relief to prevent individual crew members from becoming dangerously exhausted, and arrange for crew members to rotate in shifts through a crew rest compartment while in flight.
Second, crew members need significant downtime to rest between the longest flights. For example, for Air Canada's 17-hour flight from Vancouver to Sydney, the crew does not immediately turn around and fly the same aircraft back to Vancouver.[44] The crew is entitled to 24 hours of rest.[44] Therefore, providing regular daily intercontinental service in one direction actually requires two crews: one crew to staff today's flight and a second crew on their day off at the other end.[44]
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ "ICAO ADREP 2000 Taxonomy" (PDF).
- ^ "What is "Block Time" in Airline Schedules? Why Does it Matter?". Cirium. Retrieved 2021-07-15.
- ^ "Your Random Flight Arrival Time Isn't So Random After All". Condé Nast Traveler. 2017-08-18.
- ^ a b "FHT Flight haul type". guides.developer.iata.org. Retrieved 2023-04-25.
- ^ "Fatigue Management Guide for Airline Operators, Second Edition 2015" (PDF). ICAO. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-03-09. Retrieved 2022-12-13.
- ^ "FRMS: Challengesand Lessons Learned" (PDF). ICAO.
- ^ "Air Transport & Travel Industry IATA Edifact Version 20.2" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-10-22. Retrieved 2022-12-13.
- ^ "Fatigue Management Guide for General Aviation Operators of Large and Turbojet Aeroplanes. First Edition, 2016" (PDF). Flightsafety.org.
- ^ "IATA Cabin Waste Handbook. August 2019" (PDF). IATA.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 April 2023.
- ^ "Aviation Industry Glossary". CAPA - Centre for Aviation. Informa Markets / Aviation Week Network. Retrieved 2021-07-15.
- ^ Wragg, David W. (1973). A Dictionary of Aviation (first ed.). Reading, Berkshire, UK: Osprey Publishing Ltd. p. 189. ISBN 9780850451634.
[medium haul:] air services [...] of a range of between 1,000 and 2,500 miles
- ^ a b David Crocker (2007). Dictionary of Aviation (2 ed.). A & C Black. ISBN 978-1-4081-0226-8.
- ^ "Airport Construction Fee Effective on 1 August 2016" (Press release). Airport Authority Hong Kong. 30 May 2016. Archived from the original on 2 March 2017. Retrieved 2 March 2017.
- ^ "JAL Applies for Revision of International Cargo Fuel Surcharge" (PDF) (Press release). Japan Air Lines. June 28, 2007. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 3, 2017. Retrieved March 2, 2017.
- ^ "Optional Services and Fees | Qatar Airways". Qatar Airways. Archived from the original on 15 December 2022.
- ^ "Flight Definition". Virgin Australia. Archived from the original on 2020-03-26. Retrieved 2017-02-20.
- ^ "Long-haul delays | UK Civil Aviation Authority". UK CAA. Archived from the original on 16 April 2019.
- ^ "Study into the impact of the global economic crisis on airframe utilisation" (PDF). Eurocontrol. January 2011. p. 21. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-06-06. Retrieved 2017-02-20.
- ^ "The future of long-haul air services from europe". Association of European Airlines. 2004. p. 1. Archived from the original on 2017-02-21. Retrieved 2017-02-20.
- ^ "What are short-haul, medium-haul and long-haul flights?". Air Berlin. Archived from the original on 2018-01-29. Retrieved 2017-02-20.
- ^ "Issuance fees". Air France. Archived from the original on 2017-02-21. Retrieved 2017-02-20.
- ^ "Your travel just got more rewarding". American Airlines. Archived from the original on 2018-11-12. Retrieved 2017-03-02.
- ^ "Sweet spots for redeeming United MileagePlus miles". USA Today. April 22, 2016. Archived from the original on January 8, 2019. Retrieved January 8, 2019.
- ^ "United Airlines Offers Bonus-Miles Promotion for Premium-Cabin Travelers" (Press release). United Airlines. January 9, 2015. Archived from the original on October 20, 2020. Retrieved May 22, 2022.
- ^ "Delta to Upgrade In-Flight Wi-Fi and Expand Coverage Areas for Customers" (Press release). Delta Air Lines. 5 March 2015. Archived from the original on 2 March 2017. Retrieved 2 March 2017.
- ^ "Fleet". Lufthansa. Archived from the original on 2017-02-21. Retrieved 2017-02-20.
- ^ "TUI Planes | Our Fleet". TUI. Retrieved 14 December 2022.
- ^ "INFOGRAPHIC: Asia-Pacific ultra-long-range flights". Flight Global. 2022-12-14. Archived from the original on 14 December 2022.
- ^ "TN64 Flight Status / Air Tahiti Nui THT64 / TN 64 Flight Tracker". airportinfo.live. Archived from the original on 2021-01-08. Retrieved 2021-01-05.
- ^ "Air Tahiti Nui – New Record For World's Longest Flight – Tahiti to Paris – WORKING" (Press release). Air Tahiti Nui. 19 March 2020. Archived from the original on 20 May 2020. Retrieved 28 April 2020.
- ^ "To All Passengers Bound For French Polynesia". Air Tahiti Nui. 2020-03-11. Archived from the original on 2021-03-05. Retrieved 2021-01-05.
- ^ "World's longest domestic flight flies under radar - AeroTime". 2020-05-27. Retrieved 2024-02-02.
- ^ "Moins de 150 passagers pour le premier vol sans escale Tahiti-Paris". TNTV Tahiti Nui Télévision (in French). 2020-03-15. Retrieved 2022-06-10.
- ^ "COVID-19: Decision of the US administration to prohibit travel from Europe to the US | Air Tahiti Nui". 2020-11-28. Archived from the original on 2020-11-28. Retrieved 2023-01-11.
- ^ "TN64 Flight Status / Air Tahiti Nui THT64 / TN 64 Flight Tracker". 2023-01-11. Archived from the original on 2023-01-11. Retrieved 2023-01-11.
- ^ Street, Francesca (March 18, 2020). "Virus creates world's longest passenger flight". CNN. Archived from the original on December 3, 2021. Retrieved June 3, 2020.
- ^ "Air Taihiti Nui schedules nonstop Papeete-Paris repatriation flights in April 2020". www.routesonline.com. Archived from the original on December 24, 2022. Retrieved 2024-01-02.
- ^ Air Tahiti Nui - Annual Report 2020 (PDF). 2021. pp. 4, 29.
- ^ "Air Tahiti Nui: un nouveau direct Papeete – Paris dimanche prochain – Air Journal". April 13, 2020. Retrieved 2024-01-08.
- ^ "Singapore Airlines To Begin Non-Stop Services To New York's JFK International Airport". Archived from the original on February 2, 2021. Retrieved Jan 5, 2021.
- ^ a b "Luxair Flights from Luxembourg (LUX) to Bucharest (OTP)". FlightMapper.net. Retrieved 15 December 2022.
- ^ "LG8903 - 27. Oct 2022: Luxair (LGL8903) from Luxembourg to Bucharest". Flightera. 2022-12-15. Archived from the original on 15 December 2022. Retrieved 2022-12-15.
- ^ "LG8903 - 29. Oct 2022: Luxair (LGL8903) from Luxembourg to Bucharest". Flightera. 2022-12-15. Archived from the original on 15 December 2022. Retrieved 2022-12-15.
- ^ a b c Pihach, Michael (August 20, 2025). "'We're focused on making this right': Air Canada's Nasr & Pierce on restoring service & trust post-strike". PAX News.
External links
[edit]- The Great Circle Mapper Displays Great Circle flight routes on a Map And calculates distance and duration
- Flight-time and -distance calculator Archived 2023-06-05 at the Wayback Machine
- Air Miles Calculator
- Flight Duration Calculator
- Flight Distance Calculator Flight routes duration and Great Circle Mapper
| International | |
|---|---|
| Other | |
Flight length
View on Grokipediafrom Grokipedia
In aviation, flight length refers to the distance of a flight, typically measured as the great-circle distance between the departure and arrival aerodromes, though the actual path flown may deviate due to air traffic routing, weather, or operational factors.[1] This metric is fundamental to flight planning, fuel calculations, and regulatory compliance, as outlined in frameworks like the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration's (FAA) fuel tank flammability analysis, where flight length distributions are modeled in nautical miles to assess operational risks across aircraft fleets.[2]
Commercial airlines commonly categorize flights by length into short-haul, medium-haul, and long-haul to optimize operations, crew scheduling, and service offerings, with classifications often based on estimated duration rather than strict distance to account for variables like aircraft type and winds. According to International Air Transport Association (IATA) standards, short-haul flights last up to 3 hours, medium-haul flights range from 3 to 6 hours, and long-haul flights exceed 6 hours.[3] These categories influence key aspects such as aircraft selection—narrow-body jets for short-haul versus wide-body for long-haul[4]—and crew rest requirements, as longer flights demand extended duty limits and fatigue management protocols under international regulations.[5]
The distinction also affects economic and environmental factors; for instance, short- and medium-haul routes prioritize high-frequency operations with smaller aircraft to maximize load factors, while long-haul flights focus on efficiency through larger capacities and advanced fuel-saving technologies.[6] Ultra-long-haul flights, exceeding 16 hours, represent a growing subset enabled by modern aircraft like the Boeing 777X (expected to enter service in 2027), further emphasizing the role of flight length in global connectivity and sustainability efforts.[7]
where is the distance, is the Earth's mean radius (approximately 3,440 nautical miles), and are the latitudes of the two points, and and are the differences in latitude and longitude, respectively (with angles in radians).[17] This formula ensures precise computation for navigation systems and flight planning software. Distance-based classifications correlate to time-based definitions, where short-haul routes often equate to flights under 3-4 hours at typical cruise speeds.[14] Major airlines apply these metrics in their operations; for instance, American Airlines designates short- and medium-haul flights as those under 3,000 miles, with long-haul routes exceeding this distance, influencing crew scheduling and service levels.[16] Some U.S. airlines use thresholds around 2,000-3,000 nautical miles for long-haul to suit the continent's hub-and-spoke model, optimizing crew scheduling and fuel efficiency amid high-volume east-west corridors. In practice, actual flight paths often deviate from the great-circle route due to air traffic control, weather avoidance, or geopolitical restrictions, adding an average of 7.6% to the planned distance.[18]
Definitions and Classifications
Time-based definitions
Time-based definitions of flight length categorize commercial flights according to their scheduled duration, providing a standardized framework that accounts for operational variability rather than fixed geographic measures. According to International Air Transport Association (IATA) standards, short-haul flights are defined as those lasting up to 3 hours, medium-haul flights range from 3 to 6 hours, long-haul flights exceed 6 hours (typically up to 16 hours), and ultra long-haul flights exceed 16 hours.[3] The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) uses different thresholds: short-haul under 8 hours, long-haul 8 to 16 hours, and ultra long-haul over 16 hours.[8] These thresholds, widely adopted or influenced in the aviation industry, reflect the practical demands on crew, passengers, and aircraft, with short-haul operations often limited to domestic or regional routes, such as intra-European or U.S. coastal flights, while long-haul and ultra long-haul segments commonly connect intercontinental destinations like New York to London or Singapore to Los Angeles.[9] Various industry sources may use slightly different ranges, such as long-haul from 6 to 12 hours.[10][11] Flight time serves as a reliable metric in ICAO fatigue management guidelines because it remains independent of great-circle distance, varying instead due to factors such as jet stream winds, air traffic control delays, and ground taxiing times.[8] For instance, tailwinds can shorten transatlantic crossings by up to an hour, while congestion at major hubs like Heathrow may extend effective durations. This approach ensures classifications prioritize actual airborne time over theoretical path lengths, aligning with safety and fatigue management protocols. The evolution of these time-based thresholds traces back to earlier binary distinctions in the pre-2000s era, where aviation primarily differentiated short-haul (under 3-4 hours) from long-haul (over 6-8 hours) to address basic operational differences in propeller and early jet aircraft.[12] Post-2010s developments, driven by fuel-efficient wide-body aircraft like the Boeing 787 and Airbus A350, introduced more granular categories including medium-haul and ultra long-haul to accommodate emerging non-stop routes exceeding 15 hours, such as Perth to London.[13] These refinements better capture the scale of modern global connectivity while complementing distance-based definitions used in regional contexts.[14]Distance-based definitions
Distance-based definitions of flight length classify routes primarily using the great-circle distance, which represents the shortest path between two points on the Earth's surface along its curvature. This measure is fundamental for route planning in aviation, as it provides a standardized geographic benchmark independent of flight time, aircraft speed, or atmospheric conditions.[15] Short-haul flights are generally defined as those under approximately 1,500 km (930 statute miles or 808 nautical miles), with some variations extending to 2,400-3,000 km (1,500-1,860 statute miles), while long-haul flights exceed 3,000-4,000 km (1,860-2,485 statute miles or 1,620-2,160 nautical miles).[14][16] These thresholds help airlines determine operational strategies, such as aircraft selection and fuel requirements, without relying on variable factors like wind or duration.[16] The great-circle distance is calculated using spherical trigonometry, specifically the haversine formula:where is the distance, is the Earth's mean radius (approximately 3,440 nautical miles), and are the latitudes of the two points, and and are the differences in latitude and longitude, respectively (with angles in radians).[17] This formula ensures precise computation for navigation systems and flight planning software. Distance-based classifications correlate to time-based definitions, where short-haul routes often equate to flights under 3-4 hours at typical cruise speeds.[14] Major airlines apply these metrics in their operations; for instance, American Airlines designates short- and medium-haul flights as those under 3,000 miles, with long-haul routes exceeding this distance, influencing crew scheduling and service levels.[16] Some U.S. airlines use thresholds around 2,000-3,000 nautical miles for long-haul to suit the continent's hub-and-spoke model, optimizing crew scheduling and fuel efficiency amid high-volume east-west corridors. In practice, actual flight paths often deviate from the great-circle route due to air traffic control, weather avoidance, or geopolitical restrictions, adding an average of 7.6% to the planned distance.[18]
Regional variations
In Europe, distance-based flight classifications are standardized under the European Union's Regulation (EC) No 261/2004, which establishes short-haul flights as those under 1,500 km, medium-haul as 1,500–3,500 km (or 1,500–3,000 km for intra-EU flights), and long-haul as exceeding 3,500 km; these thresholds apply to passenger compensation, care provisions, and emissions reporting to address environmental and consumer protection needs within the dense network of the continent. Eurocontrol further refines this by categorizing very short-haul as less than 500 km, short-haul as 500–1,500 km, and long-haul as over 4,000 km, reflecting the region's emphasis on intra-continental connectivity and sustainability goals like reducing short-haul emissions.[19] In Asia and Australia, classifications adapt to expansive landmasses and island geographies, with short-haul often extending up to 1,500–2,000 miles (2,400 km) to accommodate regional routes, while long-haul begins over 4,000 km to account for transcontinental demands; for instance, Qantas defines domestic short flights as under 750 miles (1,207 km) and international short routes as up to 750 miles, with medium routes from 751 to 1,500 miles, for earning purposes, enabling efficient operations across Australia's vast interior and Asia's archipelagic networks.[20] North American definitions, influenced by the Federal Aviation Administration's operational guidelines but primarily set by carriers, typically classify short-haul as under 2,500 miles, with long-haul starting over 3,000 miles to suit the continent's hub-and-spoke model; U.S. airlines like Delta employ thresholds around 2,000-3,000 nautical miles (approximately 2,300-3,450 miles) for distinguishing domestic and transcontinental services, optimizing crew scheduling and fuel efficiency amid high-volume east-west corridors.[14] In other regions such as South America and Africa, airlines generally align with International Air Transport Association (IATA) distance-based adaptations of global standards but modify thresholds for limited infrastructure and fewer major hubs, resulting in shorter long-haul designations—often over 3,000 km—to prioritize connectivity in remote areas; for example, Latin American carriers adjust for terrain challenges, treating routes like Buenos Aires to Bogotá (about 3,200 km) as long-haul equivalents despite intermediate distances elsewhere.[21]Medium-haul classifications
Medium-haul flights represent an intermediate category in aviation classifications, typically defined as those with durations of 3 to 6 hours or distances between 1,500 and 4,000 kilometers (930 to 2,485 miles), effectively bridging regional connectivity with the onset of intercontinental travel.[3][14] This range overlaps with time-based and distance-based definitions, where factors like wind patterns can influence whether a route falls into short- or long-haul territory. Operationally, medium-haul flights prioritize versatility and efficiency, commonly employing narrow-body aircraft such as the Boeing 737 or Airbus A320neo families, which offer optimal fuel consumption and rapid turnaround times for high-frequency schedules. These routes demand moderate crew requirements, typically involving single-crew operations without the extended rest mandates of long-haul flights, enabling airlines to maximize daily utilization while maintaining cost-effective operations.[22] Notable examples include eastbound transatlantic segments like New York to London, which can complete in under 6 hours aided by jet stream tailwinds, and intra-Asia corridors such as Tokyo to Bangkok, spanning approximately 4,600 kilometers (2,860 miles) with a flight time of around 6 hours.[23][24] In historical context, pre-2020 classifications by some airlines often subsumed medium-haul routes under short-haul categories, leading to gaps in specialized planning; however, it is now a standardized distinction in IATA frameworks to support precise fuel estimation and airport slot allocation.[25][26]Superlative Commercial Flights
Shortest scheduled flights
The shortest scheduled commercial passenger flight in the world is operated by Loganair between the Orkney Islands of Westray and Papa Westray in Scotland, covering a distance of 1.7 miles (2.7 km) with an average duration of about two minutes.[27] This route holds the Guinness World Record for the shortest domestic scheduled flight, and the fastest recorded time was 53 seconds in 1985 under ideal conditions with a tailwind.[28] As of 2025, the service remains operational with approximately four daily flights, unchanged as the record holder.[29] Other notable short scheduled flights include the U.S. route from Kalaupapa to Ho'olehua on Moloka'i, Hawaii, spanning 9 miles (14 km) and lasting around 20 minutes, operated by Mokulele Airlines using small propeller aircraft to connect the remote Kalaupapa Peninsula.[30] Internationally, the flight between Brazzaville in the Republic of the Congo and Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of the Congo covers 15 miles (24 km) across the Congo River, with a scheduled time of about 45 minutes but actual airborne duration often under 10 minutes on jets like the Boeing 737.[31] These ultra-short routes typically employ small aircraft such as the Britten-Norman BN-2 Islander, a nine-seat propeller plane suited for short runways on remote islands.[27] They serve essential connectivity to isolated communities, often subsidized through public service obligations like the UK's PSO framework to maintain vital links for residents and emergency services.[32] Due to their brevity, no in-flight services are provided, with passengers barely settling in before landing.[28]Longest scheduled flights
The longest scheduled nonstop commercial flight currently operating is Singapore Airlines Flight SQ24 from Singapore Changi Airport (SIN) to New York John F. Kennedy International Airport (JFK), covering a great-circle distance of 9,537 miles (15,349 km) in approximately 18 hours and 50 minutes, with the return flight SQ23 from JFK to SIN.[33] This daily service, launched in November 2021, utilizes the Airbus A350-900ULR variant, which features enhanced fuel capacity and range capabilities to enable the route without refueling stops.[34] Another prominent ultra-long-haul route operated by Singapore Airlines is Flight SQ21 from SIN to Newark Liberty International Airport (EWR), spanning about 9,534 miles (15,336 km) and lasting around 18 hours and 40 minutes.[34] This service, also daily and flown on the A350-900ULR, provides a key trans-Pacific connection and ranks as the second-longest nonstop flight globally in 2025.[35] Looking ahead, Qantas Airways' planned Project Sunrise flights from Sydney Kingsford Smith Airport (SYD) to London Heathrow Airport (LHR) are anticipated to set a new benchmark at 10,573 miles (17,016 km) and roughly 20 hours, potentially becoming the world's longest nonstop route upon launch.[36] However, as of November 2025, the inaugural commercial service using the Airbus A350-1000ULR has been delayed to the first half of 2027 due to aircraft delivery timelines, with the first plane entering assembly in 2025.[37] A notable development for 2025 involves China Eastern Airlines' twice-weekly service from Shanghai Pudong International Airport (PVG) to Buenos Aires Ministro Pistarini International Airport (EZE), launching on December 4 and totaling around 12,427 miles (20,000 km) over approximately 29 hours.[38] This direct flight, operated on a Boeing 777-300ER with a scheduled stop in Auckland, represents an ultra-long-haul itinerary but includes a multi-leg structure rather than a nonstop operation.[39] These record-holding routes are enabled by advancements such as high-bypass turbofan engines, which improve fuel efficiency by up to 20% compared to earlier models, allowing greater range without excessive weight.[40] Extended-range Twin-engine Operational Performance Standards (ETOPS) certification permits twin-engine aircraft like the A350 to fly farther from diversion airports—up to 370 minutes in some cases—over remote oceanic paths.[41] Additionally, lie-flat seating in premium cabins enhances passenger comfort and viability for durations exceeding 18 hours, supporting higher load factors on these demanding itineraries.[42] Historically, the maximum duration for scheduled commercial nonstop flights in the 1980s was around 12 to 13 hours, exemplified by routes like Hong Kong to San Francisco on Pan Am's Boeing 747SP, limited by fuel constraints and engine technology of the era.[43] By 2025, durations have extended to over 19 hours, driven primarily by fuel efficiency gains from high-bypass engines and lightweight composite materials, which have reduced operational costs and expanded viable route networks.[42]| Rank | Route | Airline | Distance (miles/km) | Duration | Aircraft |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | SIN–JFK | Singapore Airlines | 9,537 / 15,349 | ~18h 50m | A350-900ULR |
| 2 | SIN–EWR | Singapore Airlines | 9,534 / 15,336 | ~18h 40m | A350-900ULR |
| 3 (planned) | SYD–LHR | Qantas | 10,573 / 17,016 | ~20h | A350-1000ULR (2027) |
Key Distinctions
Great-circle distance versus actual flight path
The great-circle distance represents the shortest theoretical path between two points on the Earth's surface, following the curvature of the sphere, and serves as the foundational metric for initial flight planning and route optimization in aviation.[44] This distance is calculated using the haversine formula, as outlined in distance-based definitions, and the actual flown path is often longer due to operational constraints.[45] In contrast, the actual flight path deviates from the great-circle route because of structured airways, adverse weather conditions such as jet streams that can add 200-500 miles to the trajectory, air traffic control restrictions, and potential holding patterns for delays.[46] These paths are precisely tracked in real-time using GPS and ADS-B transponders, enabling post-flight analysis and continuous improvements in routing efficiency.[45] For instance, the great-circle distance from Singapore (SIN) to New York (JFK) is 9,537 miles, but actual westbound flights often extend to approximately 10,200 miles on days with strong headwinds from jet streams, increasing the effective route length by about 7%.[47][48] Such deviations have significant operational implications, particularly for fuel consumption, where longer paths generally result in higher fuel burn due to extended cruise time. In 2025, advancements in AI-driven routing technologies, such as those deployed by airlines like Alaska Airlines, are yielding 3-5% average fuel savings through real-time weather and traffic adjustments.[49][50]Flight distance versus flight duration
In aviation, flight distance refers to the cumulative length of the actual path traveled by an aircraft from takeoff to landing, which may include deviations from the planned route due to air traffic control, weather, or other operational factors. This distance is typically measured in statute miles or kilometers using the aircraft's flight management system (FMS), which integrates data from inertial reference systems (IRS), global positioning system (GPS), and other navigation sensors to compute the traversed path in real time.[51][52] Flight duration, in contrast, measures the time spent during the flight, most commonly as block time—the period from when the aircraft pushes back from the departure gate (or begins taxiing under its own power) until it arrives at and stops at the arrival gate. Alternatively, air time (or airborne time) excludes ground operations like taxiing and encompasses only the interval from liftoff to touchdown. According to FAA regulations under 14 CFR §1.1, flight time for pilot logging and duty purposes aligns with block time, defined as the period commencing when the aircraft first moves under its own power for flight and ending when it comes to rest after landing.[53] ICAO Annex 6 similarly defines flight time as the total duration from the moment the aircraft first moves for takeoff until it stops at the destination, with minor variations in application across jurisdictions, emphasizing its use in crew scheduling and fatigue management. Block time is the standard for airline operational planning and scheduling, as it accounts for all aircraft occupancy, while air time is logged for maintenance and performance analysis. The relationship between flight distance and duration is primarily governed by the aircraft's ground speed, which determines how quickly the distance is covered. Commercial jets typically cruise at an airspeed of 500–600 miles per hour (Mach 0.78–0.85 at altitude), but ground speed varies due to wind effects: tailwinds increase it by adding to the forward component, while headwinds decrease it by subtracting from it. For instance, a 100-knot tailwind can shorten transatlantic flight durations by approximately 20-40 minutes for every 1,000 miles traveled, as seen in eastbound routes benefiting from jet streams. This dynamic is captured in the approximate equation for flight duration: where ground speed is the vector sum of true airspeed and the wind component along the flight path, expressed as .[54][55][56] Regulatory bodies like the FAA and ICAO mandate logging air time for crew duty limits to ensure safety, as it better reflects physiological stress during flight, whereas block time is used for scheduling to incorporate realistic ground handling buffers. In 2025, the effective average ground speed for long-haul commercial flights remains around 500 miles per hour when accounting for typical wind variations, climb/descent phases, and holding patterns, providing a benchmark for planning transoceanic routes that often exceed 5,000 miles.[57] The great-circle distance serves as a baseline for initial planning, but actual flight distance and duration incorporate these real-world adjustments.Operational Considerations
Crew management and human resources
Crew management in aviation is governed by stringent regulations from authorities like the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) to prevent fatigue, particularly on flights varying in length. Under FAA's FAR Part 117, the maximum flight duty period (FDP) for unaugmented crews (two pilots) is limited to 14 hours, but long-haul operations exceeding 8-10 hours of flight time require augmented crews of three or four pilots, allowing FDPs up to 16-17 hours with appropriate in-flight rest facilities classified as Class 1 or 2.[58] For ultra long-haul flights, such as those over 16 hours, regulations mandate at least two pilots on the flight deck at all times, supplemented by relief crew members using onboard bunks to ensure continuous rest.[59] Similarly, EASA's ORO.FTL rules limit standard FDPs to 13 hours but permit extensions to 18 hours for augmented crews, defined as more than the minimum required pilots, enabling in-flight rest periods of at least 1.5-3 hours per crew member.[60] Human resources challenges intensify with flight length due to circadian disruptions like jet lag, which impair pilot performance on long-haul routes crossing multiple time zones. Airlines address this through circadian rhythm training programs that educate crews on light exposure, hydration, strategic meal timing, and pre-flight sleep adjustments to mitigate symptoms and align internal clocks with destination times.[61] Emerging 2025 trends incorporate artificial intelligence (AI) for fatigue prediction in scheduling, analyzing biometric data and duty patterns to optimize rosters; studies indicate such AI-driven fatigue risk management systems can reduce unanticipated in-flight fatigue-related errors by up to 35%.[62] These tools comply with FAA and ICAO fatigue risk management guidelines, prioritizing crew welfare to maintain safety across haul lengths. Staffing requirements scale with flight length to adhere to duty limits, with short-haul flights (under 8 hours) typically requiring two pilots and a smaller cabin crew complement of 4-8 members for efficient turnarounds. In contrast, long-haul operations demand augmented flight deck crews of three to four pilots for rotations and rest, plus expanded cabin crews of 10-20 to handle extended service needs. Airlines like Emirates, operating ultra long-haul routes to destinations such as Auckland, maintain a pilot workforce exceeding 4,600 as of May 2025, with ongoing training programs to support these demands and ensure regulatory compliance.[63] Long-haul crew management elevates human resources costs, which include salaries, overtime, per diems, and accommodations. While overall airline labor costs average 31% of operations, flight crew expenses alone account for about 8.6%, rising disproportionately for long-haul with relief staffing and hotel provisions.[64][65] These expenditures underscore the need for efficient HR strategies to balance safety and profitability in extended operations.Scheduling practices and padding
Schedule padding refers to the practice by airlines of intentionally extending scheduled block times—the period from gate departure to gate arrival—beyond the expected actual flight duration, typically by 10 to 30 minutes or about 9-14% depending on route length and carrier. This buffer allows for potential delays from taxiing, air traffic control, or minor disruptions, thereby increasing the likelihood of meeting official on-time performance metrics, which consider a flight on-time if it arrives within 14 minutes of schedule according to U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) standards.[66][67] For instance, the median U.S. domestic flight, scheduled for around 120 minutes, now includes an average of 11 minutes of padding, up from 8 minutes a decade earlier.[66] In the United States, domestic flight padding has trended upward significantly from 2019 to 2025, contributing to on-time arrival rates exceeding 80% for many carriers despite actual flight times lengthening due to congestion and airspace constraints. As of October 2025, major U.S. carriers reported on-time rates of 80-87%.[68] Scheduled durations for routes like New York to Los Angeles have increased by 23 minutes since 1995, outpacing actual in-air time growth and resulting in more flights arriving early rather than late—37% late in 2023 compared to 51% in 1995.[69] Airlines like Southwest apply up to 13.9% padding on domestic routes to achieve high reliability scores.[66] The primary reasons for padding include enhancing DOT on-time rankings, which influence consumer perceptions and regulatory incentives, as well as minimizing passenger complaints and compensation claims under rules like EU261. By building in these buffers, carriers can report improved performance metrics, with U.S. domestic on-time rates rising from below 70% in the early 2010s to over 80% recently, even as underlying operational challenges persist. This approach also provides operational flexibility for connecting flights and ground handling.[69][67] Criticisms of padding center on its economic and environmental drawbacks, including higher fuel consumption from extended idling on runways or in holding patterns, which can add millions in annual costs across fleets. For example, reducing padding could save significant fuel—estimated at over six minutes per U.S. domestic flight on average—lowering operational expenses and CO2 emissions that contribute to aviation's 2-4% share of global warming. Padding also masks systemic inefficiencies like air traffic bottlenecks, leading to calls for greater transparency.[70][71][72] Modern scheduling practices incorporate dynamic padding through specialized software that analyzes historical data on winds, weather variability, and route performance to adjust block times proactively. These tools contrast padded schedules with actual flight duration baselines, which exclude buffers and reflect true airborne time plus taxiing, enabling airlines to balance on-time goals against efficiency without excessive conservatism. For example, algorithms can reduce padding on favorable wind routes based on past patterns, optimizing for both performance and resource use.[74]References
- https://www.sciencedirect.com/[science](/page/Science)/article/abs/pii/S0969699708000458