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Cryptoprocta spelea
Cryptoprocta spelea
Cryptoprocta spelea
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Cryptoprocta spelea
Temporal range: Holocene
Left distal humerus of C. spelea
Extinct
Extinct (pre 1658)  (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Eupleridae
Genus: Cryptoprocta
Species:
†C. spelea
Binomial name
†Cryptoprocta spelea
Subfossil sites for Cryptoprocta species: blue—C. spelea; green—C. ferox and C. spelea; red—C. ferox[2]
Synonyms[3]
  • Cryptoprocta ferox var. spelea Grandidier, 1902
  • Cryptoprocta spelea Petit, 1935
  • Cryptoprocta antamba Lamberton, 1939

Cryptoprocta spelea, also known as the giant fossa,[4] is an extinct species of carnivore from Madagascar in the family Eupleridae which is most closely related to the mongooses and includes all Malagasy carnivorans.

It was first named in 1902, and was subsequently recognized as a separate species in 1935 from its closest relative, the living fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox). C. spelea was larger than its extant relative but otherwise similar. The two have not always been recognized as distinct species. When and how C. spelea became extinct remains unknown; however, some anecdotal evidence—including reports of unusually large fossas—suggests that more than one species may still survive.

The species is known from subfossil bones found in a variety of caves in northern, western, southern, and central Madagascar. In some sites, it occurs with remains of C. ferox, but there is no evidence that the two lived in the same places at the same time. Living species of comparably sized, related carnivores in other regions are able to coexist, suggesting that C. spelea and C. ferox may have done the same. Due to its larger size, C. spelea likely preyed on animals too large for its smaller relative, including the recently extinct giant lemurs.

Taxonomy

[edit]

In 1902, Guillaume Grandidier listed subfossil carnivoran remains from two caves on Madagascar as a larger "variety" of the living fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox), C. ferox var. spelea, without a detailed description or holotype designation.[5] In 1935, Gabriel Petit considered spelea to represent a distinct species, but did not assign any specimen as the holotype.[6] Charles Lamberton reviewed the subfossil and living Cryptoprocta remains in 1939, and assigned other specimens found in different localities to C. spelea, agreeing with Petit in the recognition of two species.[3] The generic name Cryptoprocta translates to "hidden anus" referring to the fact that the anus is hidden by anal sacs in C. ferox.[7] The specific name spelea means "cave" and was given because of the location of its discovery.[8] However, Lamberton apparently had at most three skeletons of the living fossa, not nearly enough to capture the range of variation in that species, and some later authors did not separate C. spelea and C. ferox as two distinct species.[3]

Steven Goodman and colleagues, using larger samples, compiled another set of Cryptoprocta measurements that was published in a 2004 article. They found that some subfossil Cryptoprocta fell outside the range of variation of living C. ferox, and identified those as representing C. spelea.[9] Grandidier had not designated a type specimen for the species, and no material described by Grandidier that is associated with the name spelea can be located in the collections of the National Museum of Natural History, France (MNHN). To maintain C. spelea as the name for the larger form of the fossa, Goodman and colleagues proposed a well-preserved specimen MNHN CG 1977.755 to be designated as the neotype.[9]

Lamberton recognized a third species, Cryptoprocta antamba, on the basis of a mandible (lower jaw) with abnormally broad spacing between the condyloid processes at the back.[10] He also referred two femora (upper leg bones) and a tibia (lower leg bone) intermediate in size between C. spelea and C. ferox to this species.[11] The specific name refers to the "antamba", an animal allegedly from southern Madagascar described by Étienne de Flacourt in 1658 as a large, rare, leopard-like carnivore that eats men and calves and lives in remote mountainous areas;[12] it may have been the giant fossa.[13]

Goodman and colleagues could not locate Lamberton's material of Cryptoprocta antamba, but suggested that it was based on an abnormal C. spelea.[9] Together, the fossa and C. spelea form the genus Cryptoprocta within the family Eupleridae, which also includes the other Malagasy carnivorans—the falanouc, the fanalokas, and the Galidiinae. DNA sequence studies suggest that the Eupleridae form a single natural (monophyletic) group and are most closely related to the mongooses of Eurasia and mainland Africa.[14]

Description

[edit]
Hypothetical life restoration

Although some morphological differences between the two fossa species have been described,[15] these may be allometric (growth-related), and in their 1986 Mammalian Species account of the fossa, Michael Köhncke and Klaus Leonhardt wrote that the two were morphologically identical.[16] However, remains of C. spelea are larger than any living C. ferox.[9]

Goodman and colleagues found that spelea were 1.07 to 1.32 times as large as in adult C. ferox, and postcranial measurements were 1.19 to 1.37 times as large.[9] The only specimen of C. spelea in which condylobasal length (a measure of total skull length) could be ascertained measured 153.4 mm (6.04 in), compared to a range of 114.5 to 133.3 mm (4.51 to 5.25 in) in adult C. ferox. Humerus (upper arm bone) length in twelve C. spelea is 122.7 to 146.8 mm (4.83 to 5.78 in), averaging 137.9 mm (5.43 in), compared to 108.5 to 127.5 mm (4.27 to 5.02 in), averaging 116.1 mm (4.57 in), in the extant fossa.[17] Body mass estimates for C. spelea range from 17 kg (37 lb)[18] to 20 kg (44 lb),[19] and it was among the largest carnivores of the island.[20] By comparison, adult C. ferox range from 5 kg (11 lb) to 10 kg (22 lb).[21]

Distribution and ecology

[edit]
Collection sites[2]
Site spe. fer.
Ankazoabo +
Antsirabe + +
Behova + +
Beloha + +
Belo sur Mer + +
Bemafandry +
Betioky +
Lakaton'ny akanga +
Lelia +
Manombo + +
Tsiandroina +
Tsiravé +
Abbreviations:
  • spe.: C. spelea
  • fer.: C. ferox

Subfossil remains of the giant fossa have been found in Holocene cave sites from the northern end of Madagascar along the west coast to the far south, and in the central highlands.[3] Some sites have yielded both C. spelea and smaller remains referable to the living species, C. ferox; however, lack of robust stratigraphic knowledge and no available radiocarbon dating on subfossil Cryptoprocta bones makes it uncertain whether the two species lived in the same region at the same time.[22] The size ratio between the two species is within the range of ratios seen between similar-sized living cats and mongooses found in the same areas, suggesting that the two species may have been able to occur together.[2]

With its large size and massive jaws and teeth,[23] C. spelea was a formidable, "puma-like"[24] predator, and in addition to smaller prey it may have eaten some of the big, now extinct subfossil lemurs that would have been too large for C. ferox.[25] No subfossil evidence has been found to definitively show that lemurs were its prey; this assumption is based on the diet of the smaller, extant species of fossa.[26] Other possible prey include tenrecs, smaller euplerids, and even young Malagasy hippopotamuses.[27]

Extinction

[edit]
A cat-like mammal
The fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox) is a smaller relative of C. spelea that still survives.

The specific reason and time for the extinction of C. spelea is not known. Goodman et al. (2004) suggested that C. spelea went extinct before 1400,[2] while the IUCN Red List listed its time of extinction as before 1658.[1]

Local people on Madagascar often recognize two forms of fossa, a larger fosa mainty (or "black Cryptoprocta") and a smaller fosa mena (or "reddish Cryptoprocta").[28] There are also some anecdotal records of very large living fossas, such as the alleged record of a 2 m (7 ft), 30 kg (70 lb) fossa captured at Morondava in 1954. Goodman and colleagues suggested that further research may demonstrate that there is more than one species of fossa yet alive.[2]

C. spelea is the only extinct carnivoran mammal known from Madagascar;[8] recently extinct (non-carnivoran) Madagascan animals also include large lemurs,[9] elephant birds, and Malagasy hippopotamuses.[29] The extinction of C. spelea may have changed predation dynamics on Madagascar due to Madagascar's larger terrestrial vertebrates experiencing the lack of predator pressure.[2]

References

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Literature cited

[edit]

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Cryptoprocta spelea

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from Grokipedia
Cryptoprocta spelea, commonly known as the giant fossa, is an extinct species of carnivoran in the family , endemic to the island of , and recognized as the largest known mammalian predator in the island's fauna. Closely related to the living fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox), it was a cat-like, semi-arboreal hunter characterized by robust forelimbs adapted for subduing large prey, with an estimated body mass of approximately 12.6 kg (estimates ranging from 10 to 20 kg across studies) based on subfossil cranial and postcranial remains. Known primarily from bones discovered in caves across multiple ecoregions, C. spelea preyed on extinct giant lemurs weighing up to 85 kg and became extinct within the past 2,000 years, coinciding with human arrival and environmental changes on the island. The species was first described in 1902 by French paleontologist Guillaume Grandidier as a variety of the modern fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox var. spelea), based on subfossil material from Andrahomana Cave in southeastern ;[] it was later elevated to full species status in 1935 by Édouard Petit.[] The specific epithet spelea derives from the Latin for "cave-dwelling," reflecting the abundance of its remains in karstic sites, while the genus name —meaning "hidden anus" in Greek—refers to the animal's cloaca-like anal structure shared with its living relative.[] Taxonomically, C. spelea belongs to the subfamily Cryptoproctinae within ,[] a Malagasy carnivoran distinct from felids despite superficial similarities in build and predatory behavior. Fossils have been recovered from at least six sites spanning four major ecoregions, including the Central Highlands, Dry Deciduous Forest, Spiny Thicket, and Succulent Woodland, indicating a widespread distribution across diverse habitats from forests to arid thickets. Ecologically, C. spelea functioned as an and opportunistic , with evidence from bite marks on bones suggesting it hunted large-bodied species such as Megaladapis edwardsi (up to 85 kg) and smaller ones like Pachylemur insignis, potentially employing social hunting strategies inferred from modern fossa behaviors. Its skull, with a length of about 152.7 mm and an intercanine distance of 28.8 mm, indicates powerful jaws suited for cracking bone and tearing flesh, while limb proportions support both terrestrial and arboreal pursuits. places the youngest remains at around 1740 ± 120 calibrated years ,[] aligning its disappearance with the late megafaunal extinctions.[] Despite unconfirmed reports of sightings into the , no verified evidence supports its survival beyond subfossil records, underscoring C. spelea's role in illuminating Madagascar's lost and the impacts of anthropogenic change.

Taxonomy and discovery

Initial description

The initial subfossil remains of Cryptoprocta spelea were unearthed in during the early , as part of intensive natural history expeditions facilitated by the French colonial administration that governed the island from 1896 to 1960. These efforts, led by European scientists including members of the prominent Grandidier family, focused on collecting fossils from caves and marshy deposits to document the island's unique and recent extinctions. In 1902, French zoologist and explorer Guillaume Grandidier provided the formal scientific description of the species in the Bulletin du Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris, naming it Cryptoprocta spelea based on subfossil bones recovered from key sites such as Ambolisatra in southwestern and Andrahomana Cave in the southeast. He initially classified it as a variety of the extant fossa ( ferox), emphasizing its close anatomical resemblance but distinguishing it through evident size differences. Early morphological observations centered on the larger cranial features of these specimens, including mandibles and other fragments that exceeded those of C. ferox in dimensions, suggesting a more robust predator adapted to Madagascar's ecosystems. No was designated at the time, but the material from these colonial-era hunts formed the foundation for recognizing C. spelea as a distinct, extinct giant relative of the living fossa.

Classification history

_Cryptoprocta spelea was initially described in 1902 as a variety of the living fossa, Cryptoprocta ferox, based on subfossil remains from , but lacked a designated . In 1935, Georges Petit elevated it to full status after examining additional subfossil specimens that demonstrated consistent morphological differences, particularly in , from modern C. ferox. Subsequent work by Charles Lamberton in 1939 introduced the name Cryptoprocta antamba for similar subfossil material from southern , initially creating nomenclatural confusion, but later analyses synonymized it with C. spelea due to overlapping diagnostic traits. Some researchers in the late , citing limited comparative samples, debated its validity and treated C. spelea as a of C. ferox. A comprehensive 2004 study by Goodman, Rasoloarison, and Ganzhorn analyzed 159 subfossil and 32 modern specimens, confirming C. spelea as a distinct species through statistical morphometric comparisons that highlighted significant cranial and postcranial size disparities. To resolve taxonomic instability, they designated a neotype (MNHN CG 1977.755), a subfossil and from Grotte d'Ankazoabo in southwestern . C. spelea is classified within the family , a of Malagasy carnivorans that diverged from other feliforms around 25-30 million years ago, with Cryptoprocta forming a basal lineage alongside subfamilies like Galidiinae and Euplerinae. Recent morphological and subfossil analyses up to 2019 have reinforced its species-level distinction, with no evidence of hybridization or with modern C. ferox, consistent with its approximately 1,500 years ago.

Physical characteristics

Morphology and size

Cryptoprocta spelea exhibited a low-slung, puma-like body form adapted for both arboreal and , with subfossil evidence indicating a robust skeletal structure suited to predation in Madagascar's forested environments. This morphology shares broad similarities with the modern fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox), though C. spelea was notably larger and more powerfully built. Body mass estimates for C. spelea average approximately 12.6 kg (range 10-20 kg) based on multivariate phylogenetic regressions, though older cranial-based estimates suggest 17-20 kg, making it among the largest carnivorans on prehistoric and approximately 1.07 to 1.32 times larger than adult C. ferox in linear dimensions. Total body , including the , reached up to 2 meters, inferred from scaling postcranial measurements relative to the modern species. Cranial features included a robust with condylobasal length of 153.4 mm (based on the only known specimen), alongside massive jaws and enlarged teeth that suggest a strong bite force capable of processing large prey. These adaptations, including greater zygomatic breadth (up to 92.4 mm) and palatal length of 78.2 mm, indicate enhanced masticatory capabilities compared to C. ferox. Postcranial elements further highlight the species' powerful build, with humerus lengths ranging from 122.7 to 146.8 mm (mean 137.9 mm), supporting strong forelimbs for climbing and subduing prey. lengths averaged 167.0 mm, contributing to an overall scaling factor of about 1.19 to 1.24 times that of C. ferox in limb dimensions, which underscores adaptations for versatile movement across habitats.

Comparison to Cryptoprocta ferox

Cryptoprocta spelea was notably larger than its closest living relative, Cryptoprocta ferox, the fossa, with estimated body masses for C. spelea ranging from 10 to 20 kg (mean ~12.6 kg), approximately twice that of C. ferox at 5.5–9.9 kg. Skull dimensions further highlight this disparity, as C. spelea specimens exhibit lengths around 152.7 mm, compared to about 125.2 mm in C. ferox, representing roughly a 20% increase. Maxillary intercanine distances also differ, measuring 28.8 mm in C. spelea versus 25.3 mm in C. ferox, suggesting enhanced gape for handling larger prey. Morphologically, C. spelea displayed more robust forelimb elements than C. ferox, including thicker humeri (humeral robusticity index of 0.103 versus 0.087) and radii (radial robusticity index of 0.097 versus 0.083), along with longer processes on the . These adaptations likely supported greater leverage and strength for subduing sizable quarry, while both retained semi-arboreal traits such as low brachial indices (C. spelea at 0.740 and C. ferox at 0.773). Canine teeth in C. spelea were proportionally larger, aligning with its capacity to tackle bigger animals, though some observed cranial differences between the species have been attributed to allometric scaling related to body size increases. Evolutionarily, C. spelea represents a "giant" form within the , occupying the top predator niche in Madagascar's as the largest-bodied carnivoran until its extinction, a role now partially filled by the smaller C. ferox. This size escalation exemplifies allometric patterns in carnivoran , where larger body mass correlates with shifts in cranial and postcranial robusticity to accommodate hypercarnivorous lifestyles, as seen across euplerid diversification. Such scaling likely enabled C. spelea to exploit a broader prey spectrum, influencing predator guild dynamics on the .

Distribution and habitat

Fossil record sites

Subfossil remains of Cryptoprocta spelea have been recovered from numerous sites across , indicating a broad geographic distribution spanning northern, central, and southern regions, as well as coastal and highland areas. Key northern localities include caves in Ankarana, where postcranial elements such as humeri and femora have been documented alongside craniodental remains. In central , swamp and lake deposits at Ampasambazimba and Ankilibe have yielded skulls, isolated teeth, and postcranial bones, often in association with extinct fauna. Southern sites, particularly in the southwest, feature remains from caves like Grotte d'Ankazoabo and Beavoha, as well as coastal deposits at Antsirafaly and Andrahomana. These subfossils are primarily from Holocene deposits, with radiocarbon dates ranging from approximately 3270 to 1740 calibrated years before present (cal BP), corresponding to the last roughly 3000–2000 years. Direct remains of C. spelea are limited, representing bones from only a few individuals across sites. However, evidence of its predation is abundant in certain contexts, including over 75 postcranial elements of prey lemurs examined from multiple sites for bite marks; for instance, multiple specimens with attributed predation damage were collected from cave and swamp environments. Skulls and mandibles are noted in central highland sites, while isolated teeth appear in various assemblages tied to extinct megafauna like lemurs of the genera Palaeopropithecus and Megaladapis. Notable recent discoveries occurred in the at in the southwest, where excavations in flooded caves such as Mitoho and Malazamanga between and uncovered additional subfossil bones attributed to C. spelea, dated to around 1865 years and associated with late remains. These finds also include material potentially representing a new, larger extinct species of , expanding understanding of euplerid diversity in the region. These finds from cave and marsh deposits highlight the species' presence in diverse depositional environments, from coastal swamps to inland highlands, without evidence of confinement to specific elevations or biomes.

Inferred habitat

Cryptoprocta spelea inhabited a diverse array of ecosystems across during the , ranging from dry deciduous forests in the north to spiny thickets and succulent woodlands in the south, as well as central highland regions that likely supported more humid forest environments. Fossil occurrences at sites such as Ankarana (dry deciduous forest), Ampasambazamba (central highlands), and southern localities like Grotte d'Ankazoabo and Tsirave indicate this broad environmental tolerance. The co-occurred frequently with subfossil remains of large-bodied lemurs, including Megaladapis edwardsi and Pachylemur spp., alongside other , pointing to wooded, prey-abundant habitats that sustained a rich vertebrate community. These associations suggest environments with sufficient vegetative cover and structural complexity to support arboreal and semi-terrestrial prey . Skeletal adaptations, such as a low brachial index (0.740) and robust forelimbs, indicate a semi-arboreal capable of exploiting varied , including the fragmented mosaics prevalent in . This morphology facilitated movement through dense and climbing in trees, aligning with the island's heterogeneous landscapes. Cryptoprocta spelea existed during a period of relative climatic stability in the , prior to the intensification of human-induced habitat alterations around 700–800 CE (approximately 1200–1300 years ago), which allowed for the maintenance of these diverse ecosystems.

Paleoecology and behavior

Diet and predation

Cryptoprocta spelea is inferred to have been an opportunistic with a diet centered on large-bodied extinct , based on taphonomic evidence from subfossil sites across . Bite marks, including tooth pits, punctures, and scores matching the dental morphology of C. spelea, have been identified on bones of such as Palaeopropithecus ingens and Megaladapis edwardsi, indicating predation on arboreal weighing up to approximately 85 kg. These traces appear on skeletal elements like humeri, femora, crania, and mandibles from six sites, with no evidence of strong prey size selectivity, suggesting the giant fossa targeted a range of lemur body masses within its capabilities. The predatory strategy of C. spelea likely involved stealthy of arboreal prey, facilitated by its robust , which provided leverage for subduing large animals through and restraint. Analysis of intercanine bite distances (27–30 mm) and indices, such as high humeral robusticity and index, supports the ability to handle prey exceeding its estimated body mass of 12.6 kg, up to the upper limit of ~85 kg, beyond which species like fontoynontii (~160 kg) were probably unattainable. As a mixed-prey specialist, C. spelea competed with other predators like crocodiles (Voay robustus) and raptors for prey, particularly at cave and riverine sites where its predation signatures were most prevalent. In its role as Madagascar's apex mammalian predator during the , C. spelea exerted significant ecological pressure on megafaunal populations, potentially regulating their densities through predation on juveniles and adults alike. This top-down control is qualitatively inferred from the prevalence of predation damage across multiple lemur taxa, highlighting C. spelea's influence on subfossil community dynamics before its .

Behavioral inferences

Behavioral inferences for Cryptoprocta spelea are primarily drawn from morphological analyses of subfossil remains and analogies to its extant relative, Cryptoprocta ferox, the fossa, as direct fossil evidence of behavior is limited. Postcranial elements, such as humeri and femora from sites across Madagascar, indicate arboreal adaptations that supported versatile locomotion in forested environments, suggesting behavioral flexibility akin to the modern fossa. Recent analyses (2024) of postcranial remains and stable isotopes confirm C. spelea's arboreal behavior and lemur-focused diet, alongside evidence of a larger extinct Cryptoprocta species (~27–32 kg body mass) in southwest Madagascar. Activity patterns in C. spelea are inferred to have been cathemeral, with peaks during crepuscular periods, mirroring the modern fossa's strategy of irregular activity throughout the day and night to exploit diverse prey availability. This pattern allows predation on both diurnal and nocturnal s, and the larger body size of C. spelea (estimated at 10–20 kg) may have enabled greater temporal versatility compared to the smaller C. ferox (5.5–9.9 kg), potentially extending into more diurnal hunting to pursue large-bodied, ground-active extinct lemurs like Megaladapis. evidence from sites, including bite marks on lemur bones, supports opportunistic hunting across varied light conditions, as C. spelea remains co-occur with prey of multiple activity types. Social structure likely involved solitary individuals for most activities, similar to C. ferox, but with potential for small-group involving mothers and juveniles to tackle large prey. Forelimb morphology in C. spelea fossils suggests enhanced grappling ability for subduing arboreal up to 85 kg, where tactics—such as one individual flushing prey from trees while another ambushes below—may have been employed, as observed in modern fossa family units. This inference is supported by subfossil assemblages showing predation on oversized lemurs that exceeded solitary predator capabilities, indicating social predation dynamics targeted at like Palaeopropithecus. No evidence exists for larger packs, aligning with the predominantly solitary of euplerids. Reproductive and life history traits are reconstructed through scaling from C. ferox, as no direct subfossil evidence of juveniles or nesting sites has been identified. Like the modern fossa, C. spelea likely exhibited extended parental care, with females giving birth to 1–4 altricial young after a 50–60 day gestation, hiding them in tree dens or rock crevices for 4–5 months before they accompany the mother on hunts. Juveniles would have developed climbing skills progressively, learning arboreal pursuit through observation and practice, reaching independence around 12–18 months; this prolonged dependency, adapted for a high-skill predatory niche, would have been crucial for the larger C. spelea to train offspring in capturing extinct megalemurs. Mating occurred seasonally in trees, with females potentially mating multiply to ensure genetic diversity in low-density populations. Territoriality in C. spelea is inferred to have involved large, overlapping home ranges to sustain a high-energy carnivorous diet, exceeding those of C. ferox due to its greater size and metabolic demands. Modern fossas maintain ranges of 13–26 km² for females and 89 km² for males in fragmented habitats, patrolled via scent marking and vocalizations; for C. spelea, ranges likely spanned 20–50 km² or more, based on body mass scaling in carnivores (home range area proportional to mass^0.5–1.0), allowing coverage of diverse forested areas for lemur prey. Subfossil distributions across multiple ecoregions support wide-ranging , with minimal overlap except during mating.

Extinction

Timing and evidence

Cryptoprocta spelea is known from subfossil remains spanning the epoch, with evidence indicating presence from approximately 10,000 years ago through the late . of bones and associated sediments has established a temporal range for direct remains up to less than 2,000 years (BP), confirming its persistence into recent . Direct radiocarbon dates for C. spelea subfossils are limited but informative, with three calibrated ages reported island-wide ranging from 3,280 to 1,760 cal BP. Notable dates include 1,865 uncalibrated years BP from a specimen at Ampasambazimba in central Madagascar, corresponding to approximately 130–230 CE when calibrated, and 1,740 cal BP from Grotte d'Ankazoabo in the southwest. No confirmed skeletal remains postdate 1658 CE, though indirect evidence from co-occurring fauna at subfossil sites suggests possible persistence until approximately 1000–1400 CE. The species coexisted with humans following their arrival on Madagascar around 2,000 years ago, as evidenced by overlapping chronologies at multiple subfossil localities where human-modified artifacts and C. spelea remains appear in similar stratigraphic layers dated to ~2,000–1,500 cal . This temporal overlap highlights a period of shared island history before the decline of megafaunal taxa like C. spelea.

Possible causes and survival reports

The of Cryptoprocta spelea is attributed primarily to anthropogenic factors following colonization of . Direct hunting of , including possible targeting of C. spelea, is inferred from the broader around 1200–1000 calibrated years (cal yr BP). through slash-and-burn agriculture and forest clearance, initiated following arrival approximately 2000 years ago with later intensification, fragmented and reduced the dense forested environments essential for the ' survival. Additionally, the introduction of domesticated such as dogs around 1000–1400 years ago and () between 1200 and 700 years ago likely intensified competition for resources and facilitated indirect predation pressures on C. spelea. Secondary factors include the cascading effects of megafaunal prey decline, which may have led to starvation among surviving C. spelea populations. The species' reliance on large lemurs as primary prey meant that the extinction of these herbivores between 1200 and 700 cal yr BP (~750–1250 CE) severely impacted its food availability. A 2021 study demonstrates how introduced dogs contributed to the co-extinction of euplerid carnivores like C. spelea and their giant lemur prey through predation, competition, and aiding human hunts, underscoring the synergistic role of human activities in these losses. Reports of C. spelea survival persist in ethnohistoric and anecdotal accounts but remain unverified. Local Malagasy and observations describe encounters with "large fossas" or "fosabe" (big fossa) in the late , including a 1989 sighting by a researcher at Ampamelonabe camp in Montagne d'Ambre , where a large, blackish euplerid was observed raiding supplies at dawn. Similar cryptozoological claims from the in remote northern and eastern forests lack photographic, genetic, or specimen evidence, and are often attributed to misidentifications of the smaller Cryptoprocta ferox or other mammals. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classifies C. spelea as Extinct, with the last reliable historical mention by Étienne de Flacourt in 1658 CE, though a remote possibility of persistence in isolated areas like Zahamena cannot be entirely ruled out without further surveys.

References

  1. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10914-017-9391-z
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  8. https://doi.org/10.1101/2024.03.25.586658
  9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2021.742203
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  12. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277379120300573
  13. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/381636562_Reconstructing_behavior_in_large-bodied_extinct_Cryptoprocta_species_and_their_impact_on_Malagasy_lemurs_past_and_present
  14. https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article/93/3/667/835578
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  16. https://tb.plazi.org/GgServer/html/D51587EFFFEA9A30F0C41DFDFCB9F762/32
  17. https://ielc.libguides.com/sdzg/factsheets/fossa/reproduction
  18. https://ielc.libguides.com/sdzg/factsheets/fossa/behavior
  19. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/zoo.21884
  20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.06.030
  21. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2021.689559
  22. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2021.1204
  23. http://iucnosg.org/Library/Papers/IUCN_Red_listings_Schipper_et_al_SCC39.pdf
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