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"Go Down, Moses"
Fisk Jubilee Singers (earliest attested)
Song
GenreNegro spiritual
SongwriterTraditional
Go Down Moses
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"Go Down Moses" is an African American spiritual that describes the Hebrew Exodus, specifically drawing from the Book of Exodus 5:1, in which God commands Moses to demand the release of the Israelites from bondage in Egypt. "And the LORD spoke unto Moses, Go unto Pharaoh, and say unto him, Thus saith the LORD, Let my people go, that they may serve me".[1]

As is common in spirituals, the song refers to freedom,[2] both the freedom of the Israelites, and that of runaway enslaved people.[3] As a result of those messages, it was outlawed by many enslavers.[4]

The opening verse, as published by the Jubilee Singers in 1872:

When Israel was in Egypt's land
Let my people go
Oppress'd so hard they could not stand
Let my people go

Refrain:
Go down, Moses
Way down in Egypt's land
Tell old Pharaoh
Let my people go

Lyrically, the song refers to the liberation of the ancient Jewish people from Egyptian slavery. That story held a second meaning for enslaved African Americans, because they related their experiences under slavery to those of Moses and the Israelites who were enslaved by the pharaoh,[5] and the idea that God would come to the aid of the persecuted resonated with them. "Go Down Moses" also makes reference to the Jordan River, commonly associated in spirituals with reaching freedom, because the act of running away often involved crossing one or more rivers.[6][7]

Since the Old Testament recognizes the Nile Valley as further south, and thus, lower than Jerusalem and the Promised Land, heading to Egypt means going "down"[8] while going away from Egypt is "up".[9] In the context of American slavery, that ancient sense of "down" converged with the concept of "down the river" (the Mississippi), where enslaved people's conditions were notoriously worse. Later verses also draw parallels between the Israelites' freedom from slavery and humanity's freedom won by Christ.[10]

"Oh! Let My People Go"

[edit]
See also: Songs of the Underground Railroad
"Oh! Let My People Go"
Sheet music cover, 1862
Song
Published1862
GenreNegro spiritual
SongwriterTraditional

Although usually thought of as a spiritual, the earliest written record of the song was as a rallying anthem for the Contrabands at Fort Monroe sometime before July 1862. White people who reported on the song presumed it was composed by them.[11] It became the first spiritual known to be recorded in sheet music.

While the Reverend Lewis Lockwood, the chaplain of the Contrabands, was visiting Fortress Monroe in 1861, he heard runaway enslaved people singing the song, transcribed what he heard, and eventually published it in the National Anti-Slavery Standard.[12] Soon after, sheet music was published titled "Oh! Let My People Go: The Song of the Contrabands", arranged by Horace Waters. Lockwood stated in the sheet music that the song was from Virginia, dating from about 1853.[13]

However, the song was not included in Slave Songs of the United States, despite its being a very prominent spiritual among enslaved people. Furthermore, the original version of the song sung by enslaved people almost definitely sounded very different from what Lockwood transcribed by ear, especially following an arrangement by a person who had never heard the song as it was originally sung.[14] The opening verse, as recorded by Lockwood, is:

The Lord, by Moses, to Pharaoh said: Oh! let my people go
If not, I'll smite your first-born dead—Oh! let my people go
Oh! go down, Moses
Away down to Egypt's land
And tell King Pharaoh
To let my people go

Sarah Bradford's authorized biography of Harriet Tubman, Scenes in the Life of Harriet Tubman (1869), quotes Tubman as saying she used "Go Down Moses" as one of two code songs used with fugitive enslaved people to communicate when fleeing Maryland.[15] Tubman began her underground railroad work in 1850 and continued until the beginning of the Civil War, so it is possible Tubman's use of the song predates the origin claimed by Lockwood.[16] Some people even hypothesize that she herself may have written the spiritual.[17] Others claim that Nat Turner, who led one of the most well-known slave revolts in history, either wrote or was the inspiration for the song.[18]


Recordings

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See also

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References

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Bibliography

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Go Down Moses

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"," also rendered as "Let My People Go," is an anonymous African American spiritual that emerged among enslaved laborers in around the mid-19th century, adapting the biblical account from the to symbolize aspirations for from chattel . The song's command to confront with the demand to release the , paralleling the plight of American slaves under their masters, and it served as both a religious expression and a subtle signal of resistance. First documented in print in 1861 as "O! Let My People Go: The Song of the Contrabands," it functioned as a rallying cry for freedmen at during the Civil War, reflecting the spiritual's role in fostering hope amid oppression. Abolitionist reportedly employed variants of the tune to alert potential escapees on the , underscoring its practical utility in covert operations against the slave system. Popularized post-war by the through concerts and publications starting in the 1870s, the spiritual gained widespread recognition and influenced subsequent arrangements in classical, , and civil rights contexts, enduring as a testament to the resilience of those in bondage.

Origins

Biblical Inspiration

The spiritual "Go Down, Moses" draws its primary inspiration from the in the , which recounts God's deliverance of the from slavery in Egypt through the prophet . In Exodus chapters 3–4, God commissions at the burning bush to confront , declaring His intent to free the oppressed for worship in the wilderness, establishing the theme of divine intervention against tyranny. This narrative frames as God's emissary, tasked with demanding liberation despite 's resistance, a motif central to the song's refrain. The song's titular command and recurring plea—"Let my people go"—directly paraphrases God's repeated ultimatums to , first articulated in Exodus 5:1: "Thus says the , the of the , 'Let my people go, that they may serve me in the .'" This phrase recurs in subsequent chapters (Exodus 7:16, 8:1, 8:20, 9:1, 9:13, 10:3), each preceding a plague as enforcement for 's refusal, underscoring escalating divine judgment to secure release. Lyrics evoking harsh labor, such as grinding tasks and cries under oppression, reflect Exodus 1:11–14 and 5:6–19, where toil in brick-making and field work amid increased burdens. Further verses in the spiritual allude to specific plagues, including the death of the firstborn (Exodus 11–12), symbolizing the ultimate catalyst for after Pharaoh's hardened heart yields to catastrophe. The Passover institution in Exodus 12:21–27, marking Israel's hasty departure, reinforces the song's imagery of urgent freedom from bondage, portraying the biblical events as a paradigm of redemption from subjugation.

Development Among Enslaved African Americans

"Go Down, Moses," also known as "Let My People Go," developed as an oral tradition among enslaved African Americans in the antebellum South, where it formed part of the broader corpus of Negro spirituals created collectively during communal labor, worship, and secret gatherings. These spirituals fused West African musical elements, such as call-and-response patterns and polyrhythms, with biblical narratives adapted to express the lived realities of bondage, particularly the Exodus story symbolizing deliverance from oppression. Enslaved individuals sang the song while performing field work or in hush harbors—covert religious meetings—to encode messages of resistance and hope, with the refrain "Let my people go" evoking direct pleas for emancipation akin to the scriptural command to Pharaoh. The song's precise composition date remains undocumented due to the oral nature of slave music, but it circulated widely across Southern plantations by the mid-19th century, reflecting a theological identification of enslaved with the under Egyptian tyranny. Historical accounts indicate it served practical functions, including signaling on escape routes like the , where lyrics might covertly instruct fugitives on safe passage northward. Its urgency stemmed from the biblical motif's resonance with contemporary atrocities, such as family separations and brutal overseer violence, fostering communal resilience without overt rebellion that could invite reprisals. The earliest printed version appeared in 1862 as "O! Let My People Go: A Song of the Contrabands," transcribed from performances by escaped enslaved people—termed "contrabands"—at , , during the Civil War, marking the first full publication of a Black spiritual with both lyrics and music. This documentation captured variations sung as a "battle hymn" by approximately 10,000 freed individuals under Union protection by mid-1862, evidencing the song's evolution from plantation secrecy to public expression amid emancipation efforts. Prior to this, the spiritual's development relied on anonymous improvisation, with enslaved singers altering verses to incorporate current events, such as specific pleas for divine intervention against slaveholders equated to .

Lyrics and Themes

Structure and Content

"Go Down, Moses" follows a verse-refrain structure typical of African American spirituals developed among enslaved people in the . Each verse consists of four lines, with the second and fourth lines echoing the refrain's imperative "Let my people go," creating a rhythmic and emphatic repetition. The refrain itself—"Go down, Moses, way down in land, tell old to let my people go"—serves as the song's central hook, repeated after every verse to reinforce the narrative's climax. The lyrics open with a foundational verse depicting the Israelites' bondage: "When Israel was in Egypt's land: Let my people go! Oppressed so hard they could not stand, Let my people go." Subsequent verses expand on the biblical account from Exodus, including divine commands and consequences, such as "Thus saith the Lord, bold Moses said: Let my people go! If not I'll smite your first-born dead: Let my people go!" Other stanzas reference Pharaoh's refusal and the ensuing plagues, like "No more cane and task work labor: Let my people go!" which alludes to the burdens of lifted through liberation. In , the song often incorporated call-and-response elements, where a leader would intone a verse line-by-line, and the group responded with the or affirming phrases, fostering communal participation during fieldwork or secret gatherings. The number of verses varied by , with documented versions from the mid-19th century featuring 4 to 10 stanzas, allowing flexibility for while preserving the core Exodus storyline. This modular form enabled the spiritual to adapt to different contexts, yet its content consistently retold the scriptural events of confronting and securing the ' release from Egyptian enslavement.

Religious and Symbolic Interpretations

The song "Go Down, Moses" draws directly from the biblical narrative in the Book of Exodus, chapters 5–12, where God instructs Moses to confront Pharaoh with the demand to release the Israelites from bondage in Egypt. Enslaved African Americans interpreted this account as a divine prototype for their own liberation, viewing the Israelites' suffering under Pharaoh's oppression as analogous to their enslavement on American plantations, with the refrain "Let my people go" serving as a literal invocation of God's authoritative command against tyranny. This religious framing positioned the spiritual as a form of scriptural exegesis, transforming the Exodus story into a prophetic assurance of eventual deliverance through divine intervention rather than human effort alone. Symbolically, the encode a layered typology where represents the slaveholding , embodies the unyielding authority of enslavers, and functions as an intercessor empowered by God to challenge systemic . The repeated insistence on underscores a of God's over earthly powers, implying that , no matter how entrenched, yields to higher moral and cosmic order. Scholars of African American religious music note that such symbolism fostered resilience by recasting immediate hardships within a redemptive arc, where the "oppressed so hard they could not stand" mirrors the ' cries in Exodus 2:23–25, evoking God's covenantal faithfulness. This interpretation, rooted in and communal singing, avoided overt rebellion signals detectable by overseers while reinforcing eschatological hope—freedom in this life or the as fulfillment of biblical promises.

Musical Characteristics

Melody and Performance Style

The melody of "Go Down, Moses" is characterized by its simplicity and emotional depth, typically notated in with a 4/4 meter and employing a derived from the minor mode, utilizing tones such as mi, si, la, ti, do, re, and mi. It follows a verse-refrain form (often structured as AAB or AABC), where verses recount elements of narrative and the refrain repeats the imperative "Let my people go" with descending phrases that convey descent and urgency, supported by basic I-IV-V chord progressions. This structure aligns with the "sorrow song" subtype of Negro , featuring slow tempos, syncopated rhythms, and microtonal bends or slides that resist strict notation and evoke melancholy and resolve. Performance practices for "Go Down, Moses" originated in communal settings among enslaved , emphasizing call-and-response dynamics where a leader would improvise textual or melodic variations on the verses, met by the group's unison refrain, fostering participation and emotional intensity. Singers employed distinctive vocal timbres, including raspy shouts, strains, and free rhythmic turns, often or augmented by handclapping, foot-stamping, or body movement in ring-shout traditions to generate polyrhythmic layers. Post-emancipation choral adaptations, as in ' renditions from the 1870s onward, introduced arranged harmonies while retaining improvisational elements; concert versions, such as Henry T. Burleigh's 1917 solo arrangement, shifted toward disciplined lyrical delivery with piano accompaniment for formal stages, preserving the spiritual's forceful sermon-like quality.

Variations Across Traditions

In the traditional African American spiritual performance style, "Go Down, Moses" features a call-and-response structure where a leader sings the verse and the group responds with the refrain "Let my people go," often delivered a cappella or with minimal percussion to evoke communal work songs or ring shouts among enslaved communities. This oral tradition emphasized rhythmic syncopation and improvisational phrasing derived from African musical heritage blended with Protestant hymnody, allowing for regional variations in tempo and embellishments based on performers' experiences. Gospel adaptations, emerging in the early through urban ensembles, introduce fuller instrumentation such as , organ, and , heightening the song's emotional intensity with sustained harmonies and ecstatic solo runs, as heard in choir renditions by groups like the Christian Tabernacle Concert Choir in 1971. These versions often accelerate the to around 100-120 beats per minute for congregational participation, shifting from the spiritual's somber lament to a triumphant proclamation of , while retaining the core biblical narrative. Jazz interpretations, popularized by Louis Armstrong's 1958 recording, incorporate swing rhythms, blue notes, and scat-like vocal improvisations, transforming the into a vehicle for individual expression with and rhythm sections underscoring the refrain's urgency. Later ensembles, such as arrangements scored as cha-chas at 118 BPM, add Latin percussion and syncopated bass lines, diverging from the original's linear form to emphasize groove and harmonic substitutions typical of influences. Classical concert arrangements, beginning with Harry T. Burleigh's 1917 art song version for baritone and piano, harmonize the spiritual in major-minor modulations and four-part choral textures, aligning it with European Romantic traditions while preserving melodic contours, as performed by Marian Anderson in 1924. Composers like Florence Price further adapted it for string quartet in her 1940s "Negro Folksongs in Counterpoint," employing polyphonic counterpoint and fugal elements to elevate the folk source into symphonic repertoire without altering lyrical intent. These variants prioritize technical precision and dynamic contrasts over communal improvisation, reflecting a deliberate integration into Western art music canons.

Notable Recordings and Performances

Early Documentations

The earliest printed documentation of "Go Down, Moses," also known as "Let My People Go," appeared in December 1861 as sheet music titled The Song of the Contrabands: "O! Let My People Go." This version was collected by Reverend Lewis C. Lockwood, a chaplain to the "contrabands"—escaped enslaved people seeking refuge at Fortress Monroe, Virginia—during the early stages of the American Civil War. The words and music were transcribed from oral performances by these individuals and arranged by Thomas Baker for publication by Horace Waters in New York. The 1861 sheet music includes the familiar refrain "O! Let my people go" and verses drawing directly from the , such as references to Pharaoh's oppression and the plagues, reflecting the song's biblical roots as conveyed through African American . This publication marked the first widespread dissemination of the spiritual in written form, capturing a and that had likely circulated among enslaved communities in the for years prior, though exact origins remain undocumented due to the oral nature of the tradition. The first audio recording of "Go Down, Moses" was made in 1915 by the Tuskegee Institute Singers, a choral group from the historically Black Tuskegee Institute (now ), preserving the spiritual in its emerging performed format amid the early 20th-century interest in folk and spiritual music collections. Subsequent early documentations appeared in compilations like Slave Songs of the (1867), which included variants and helped standardize notations for broader audiences.

20th and 21st Century Interpretations

In the early , "Go Down, Moses" gained prominence through concert performances by African American singers who reinterpreted it as a symbol of enduring resistance against oppression, extending its antebellum themes into the era of and emerging civil rights activism. , whose renditions emphasized a deep, resonant defiance drawn from the spiritual's Exodus motif, performed it widely in and 1940s, linking the biblical liberation of the Israelites to contemporary struggles against racism and colonialism; his approach, rooted in his Marxist-influenced worldview, framed the song as a universal cry for emancipation rather than solely religious solace. Marian Anderson's dignified 1939 performance of , including variants akin to "Go Down, Moses," elevated the genre to national symbolism of moral fortitude amid segregation, influencing public perceptions of the song as a beacon of nonviolent perseverance. During the mid-20th century , interpretations shifted toward explicit parallels with desegregation efforts, though the spiritual was less central than songs like "" but still invoked for its narrative of divine intervention against tyrannical authority. Louis Armstrong's 1958 jazz arrangement, with its improvisational swells and rhythmic drive, recast the spiritual as a bold anthem amid Montgomery bus boycotts and sit-ins, highlighting enslaved ancestors' agency in signaling escape routes—a reading that contrasted with purely liturgical views by stressing historical agency over fatalism. Scholarly examinations, such as those in educational theses, reinforced this by analyzing the lyrics' refrain as a scriptural mandate for , recommending its use in curricula to connect biblical typology with 20th-century racial . In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, performances diversified across genres, with choral ensembles like the maintaining traditional styles while contemporary artists infused electronic or fusion elements to reinterpret the song's themes of resilience in post-civil rights contexts, such as and mass incarceration. A gospel revival by artists like emphasized eschatological hope, portraying Pharaoh's downfall as prophetic judgment on systemic injustice, aligning with black liberation theology's causal emphasis on structural reform over individual piety. Interfaith dialogues, particularly between African American and Jewish communities, highlighted shared Exodus narratives, as in 2011 analyses framing the spiritual as a bridge for mutual recognition of historical traumas without romanticizing parallels. Recent scholarly work, including 2021 honors theses, critiques overemphasis on coded resistance claims, instead privileging empirical lyric analysis to underscore the song's primary theological realism—God's sovereign role in causal deliverance—over politicized readings that risk diluting its scriptural fidelity.

Cultural and Historical Impact

Role in Slavery and Abolition Movements

![Sheet music for "Let My People Go" (1862)][float-right] "Go Down, Moses," also known as "Let My People Go," originated among enslaved in the , where it served as a spiritual expressing collective yearning for deliverance modeled on the biblical Exodus from . The lyrics directly invoke God's command to —"Let my people go"—to parallel the ' oppression with the slaves' subjugation, framing enslavement as a and divine injustice. Enslaved communities performed it during religious gatherings and labor, using its refrain to voice resilience and hope amid systemic brutality, though exact composition dates remain undocumented prior to the Civil War era. The song gained documented prominence during the (1861–1865), particularly among "contrabands"—escaped slaves who sought refuge with Union forces after the Confiscation Acts of 1861 and 1862 authorized their protection. First published on December 5, 1861, in the National Anti-Slavery Standard as "O! Let My People Go: The Song of the Contrabands," it was collected from formerly enslaved individuals in Fortress Monroe, , highlighting its spontaneous emergence in wartime contexts of partial . Contrabands sang it upon reaching Union lines, transforming the spiritual into an anthem of immediate liberation, with reports noting performances by groups of up to 1,000 freed people in military camps. In the broader abolition movement, "Go Down, Moses" resonated with antislavery advocates by amplifying scriptural arguments against human bondage, influencing publications and sermons that equated Southern planters with . Northern newspapers and abolitionist periodicals disseminated the lyrics, exposing audiences to the slaves' religious worldview and bolstering moral opposition to ; for instance, its 1862 edition reached wider circulation amid Union victories. While not composed as an explicit organizing tool, the spiritual's themes of divine intervention supported the era's emancipatory momentum, culminating in the of January 1, 1863, which freed over 3.5 million enslaved people in Confederate territories. During the of the 1950s and 1960s, "Go Down, Moses" was revived among African American activists as a spiritual expressing demands for freedom from systemic oppression, paralleling the biblical Exodus with struggles against and segregation. Freedom songs derived from like this one were sung at meetings, marches, and church gatherings, fostering communal resilience and moral authority against violence from authorities. While not as ubiquitous as adapted hymns like "," its refrain—"Let my people go"—resonated in protests, symbolizing nonviolent insistence on equality, as documented in accounts of Black-led demonstrations where such songs unified participants and drew public attention to injustices. Louis Armstrong's 1956 recording of the spiritual, released amid rising civil rights tensions, amplified its protest connotations by infusing with the original's raw plea for deliverance, reaching wider audiences through commercial dissemination. This version, peaking in cultural relevance during the era, underscored the song's adaptability from antebellum slave expressions to mid-20th-century advocacy, though some analyses note its primary historical tie to abolition rather than direct fieldwork. In , "Go Down, Moses" has influenced diverse musical genres and media, with over 100 documented covers since its earliest recording by the Tuskegee Institute Singers in 1915. Performances by artists like in the 1940s emphasized its dramatic bass rendition for theatrical and concert settings, while and interpretations extended its reach into mainstream entertainment. The song's motifs appear in films such as (1998), where the "Let my people go" imperative drives the animated musical's plague sequence, blending spiritual roots with contemporary storytelling. Television episodes, including a 1990 Fresh Prince of Bel-Air segment parodying the spiritual in a context, further embedded it in comedic and familial narratives, highlighting its enduring symbolic power beyond solemn contexts. Rap lyrics have referenced its Exodus imagery, as in tracks invoking for themes of liberation, demonstrating cross-generational adaptation without altering core biblical fidelity.

Debates and Controversies

Coded Message Claims

Claims that the spiritual "Go Down, Moses" (also known as "Let My People Go") served as a coded message for enslaved emerged prominently in post-Civil War narratives and abolitionist lore, positing that its biblical lyrics conveyed dual meanings: a surface-level retelling of story alongside hidden instructions for escape via the . Proponents argue that terms like "Egypt land" symbolized the American South under slavery, "Pharaoh" represented slaveholders, and "Moses" alluded to liberators guiding fugitives northward, with the refrain "Let my people go" functioning as a direct call to resist bondage and flee. A key assertion centers on Harriet Tubman, who reportedly used the song as a signal during her 19 rescue missions starting around 1850, singing it to indicate her presence and readiness to lead enslaved people to freedom in the North, thereby alerting potential escapees without arousing suspicion from overseers. In post-war interviews, Tubman described employing "Go Down, Moses" alongside "Bound for the " for this purpose, leveraging the song's familiarity as a spiritual to mask its operational intent. Similar claims extend to broader usage, where the spiritual allegedly coordinated movements, with verses interpreted as directives to evade patrols or follow safe routes, drawing on the motif's inherent theme of deliverance from oppression. These interpretations gained traction through 19th- and 20th-century accounts from former slaves and abolitionists, who viewed as vehicles for subtle resistance, embedding navigational cues or morale-boosting metaphors within overtly religious lyrics to evade literate white auditors. For instance, the song's depiction of Pharaoh's intransigence and divine intervention was said to encode encouragement for perseverance amid recapture risks, aligning with documented spiritual practices where double entendres preserved cultural defiance under . Such claims portray "Go Down, Moses"—first documented in print around 1862—as not merely devotional but strategically subversive, integral to the clandestine networks that aided an estimated 30,000–100,000 escapes before the 1865 .

Scholarly Critiques of Political Overemphasis

Scholars have critiqued interpretations that overemphasize the political resistance elements in "Go Down Moses," contending that such views often retroactively impose activist motives onto songs primarily rooted in biblical exegesis and eschatological hope. Early collectors of spirituals, including William Francis Allen, Charles Pickard Ware, and Lucy McKim Garrison in their 1867 compilation Slave Songs of the United States, documented the song as a direct adaptation of the Exodus narrative, emphasizing enslaved singers' identification with Israel's divine deliverance rather than coordinated subversion against overseers. These accounts, drawn from firsthand observations during the Civil War, highlight the spiritual's function as communal worship and theological reflection, with lyrics invoking God's command to Pharaoh as a plea for supernatural intervention, not tactical signals. James Kelley, in a analysis of ' purported coded elements, extends this critique to broader resistance claims, arguing that assertions of hidden operational messages—such as escape directives—frequently derive from late-19th and 20th-century interpolations lacking primary evidence from slave testimonies or abolitionist records. For "Go Down Moses," Kelley notes the absence of contemporary attestations linking its performance to specific plots, contrasting it with more abstract expressions of longing in figures like , who described as conveying generalized sorrow and aspiration rather than encrypted plans. This perspective posits that overpoliticization favors a monolithic of agency, sidelining empirical indications of the songs' role in fostering resignation to earthly trials alongside anticipation of heavenly freedom. Critics further observe that post-emancipation reinterpretations, amplified in civil rights s, risk eclipsing the spiritual's core soteriological focus—God's over human oppressors—with anachronistic emphases on secular , potentially undervaluing how enslaved communities prioritized eternal consolation over perilous earthly defiance, as evidenced by the rarity of documented revolts despite widespread singing. Such analyses urge a balanced appraisal, grounded in textual fidelity to Scripture and historical , to avoid conflating symbolic resonance with verifiable causal intent.

References

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  54. http://www.thenegrospiritualinc.com/article_coded_spirituals.htm
  55. https://folkworks.org/article/songs-of-slavery-survival-freedom/
  56. https://scalar.usc.edu/works/will-the-circle-be-unbroken/songs-of-the-underground-railroad
  57. https://www.marintheatre.org/press-release-details/210/the-origins-and-history-of-spirituals
  58. https://balladofamerica.org/spirituals/
  59. https://people.howstuffworks.com/culture-traditions/cultural-traditions/slave-spiritual-music.htm
  60. https://scholarsjunction.msstate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=msu-meridian-publications
  61. https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1996&context=masters
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