Hubbry Logo
APOPOAPOPOMain
Open search
APOPO
Community hub
APOPO
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
APOPO
APOPO
APOPO
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

APOPO (Dutch: Anti-Persoonsmijnen Ontmijnende Product Ontwikkeling, lit. 'Anti-Personnel Landmines Detection Product Development'[1]) is a registered Belgian non-governmental organisation and US non-profit which trains southern giant pouched rats[1] and technical survey dogs to detect landmines and tuberculosis.[2] They call their trained animals HeroRATs and HeroDOGs.[3]

Key Information

History

[edit]

APOPO started as an R&D organization in Belgium in the 1990s, working with the support of research and government grants to develop the concept of Detection Rats Technology. As a pet owner, Bart Weetjens, one of the co-founders, came across an article about gerbils being used as scent detectors. He believed that rats, with their strong sense of smell and ability to be trained, could provide a better means to detect landmines. Weetjens's former university lecturer Prof. Mic Billet, the founder of the Institute for Product Development at Antwerp University, fully supported the idea and made his personal resources available for further investigation and promotion of the new initiative. After consulting with Professor Ron Verhagen, rodent expert at the department of evolutionary biology of the University of Antwerp, the Gambian pouched rat was determined to be the best candidate due to its longevity and African origin.[4] The APOPO project was launched on 1 November 1997 by Bart Weetjens and his former schoolmate Christophe Cox. Both Weetjens and Cox had previously collaborated in a not-for-profit organisation that had been headed by Prof. Mic Billet, and together they started building a kennel facility for the training and breeding of African giant pouched rats. They contacted the Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) in Morogoro, Tanzania, and placed an order for the import of Gambian pouched rats.

Initial financial support came in 1997 from Belgian government foreign development aid funds.[4] In 2000 it moved its training and headquarters to SUA, partnering with the Tanzanian People's Defence Force.

In 2003 APOPO was awarded a grant from the World Bank, which provided seed funding to research another application of the rats: tuberculosis (TB) detection at SUA.[5] Weetjens got a three-year personal grant from Ashoka: Innovators for the Public in 2007.[6] A TB detection program in Tanzania was launched in mid-2007 as a partnership with four government clinics.[7] In 2008 proof of principle was provided in using trained rats to detect pulmonary tuberculosis in human sputum samples. In 2010 a research plan to evaluate the effectiveness and implementation of the rats in diagnosing tuberculosis was started.[4] The same year APOPO developed an automated training cage in order to remove human bias. The rats' response is measured by optical sensors and the cage produces an automated click sound with food delivery.[8]

Following results in Tanzania, the TB detection program was replicated in 2013 at a clinic in Maputo, Mozambique, at the veterinary department of the Eduardo Mondlane University.[9] In 2014, in partnership with the Central Tuberculosis Reference Laboratory, the National Institute of Medical Research and the Center for Infectious Disease Research in Zambia, a study undertaken to determine the accuracy of the rats in a population of presumptive TB patients.[8] In 2014 five additional health centres joined the TB detection programme in Maputo. In 2016 APOPO covered almost 100% of all the suspect TB patients who go to clinics in the city,[9] and the TB detection program in Tanzania had expanded to 28 clinics in three areas and processed around 800 samples per week.[7]

After the first 11 rats were given accreditation according to International Mine Action Standards in 2004, beginning in 2006 machinery for ground preparation, manual deminers and the rats assisted with detection in long-running mine clearance operations in Mozambique.[4][10] Tasked in 2008 as the sole operator to clear Gaza Province, the province was mine-free in 2012, one year ahead of schedule. In 2013 the government allowed APOPO to expand its operations in Maputo, Manica, Sofaka and Tete provinces.[11] Mozambique was officially declared free of all landmines on 17 September 2015. APOPO assisted the government with clearing five provinces.[12] Sixteen rats were maintained in the country at the request of the government in order to carry out residual (mop-up) tasks.[8]

In Angola APOPO has worked for Norwegian People's Aid since 2012. From 2013 to 2015 up to 31 rats assisted demining by heavy machinery and people with metal detectors at two sites, Ngola-Luije in Malanje and in Malele in Zaire Province, bordering the Democratic Republic of Congo.[10][11] 49 hectares were cleared.[10] The 52 ha (130 acres) Malele site was cleared one year in advance.[11] In 2016 rats assisted clearance at a site in Ndondele Mpasi, Zaire province.[13]

In early 2014 the national Cambodia Mine Action Centre (CMAC) started demining a site, with the help of Norwegian Peoples Aid, using conventional mine clearance methods.[10][14] Following a six-month acclimatization and training period, 14 out of the 16 rats were accredited by CMAC in November 2015 to be used in mine clearance operations.[11] Two Cambodian handlers spent six months in the training centre in Tanzania.[11] By June 2016 the first minefield was cleared.[8] In 2017 a visitor centre was opened in Siem Reap.[15]

Organization

[edit]

APOPO operational headquarters, including the training and research centers, are based at the Sokoine University of Agriculture in Morogoro, Tanzania. It has field offices for its mine action programmes in Mozambique, Angola and Cambodia as of 2016. The TB programmes are operational in Tanzania and Mozambique, with offices based in Morogoro, Dar es Salaam and Maputo. It has also two fundraising offices in Switzerland and in the United States, and an administrative support office in Antwerp (Belgium).

An APOPO foundation was established in Geneva in 2015 to support APOPO's global activities with financial resources, networking among mine clearance and tuberculosis stakeholders, and increasing visibility. An office was set up in the United States to better access important institutional donors and public funding. The U.S. office was registered as a 501(c)(3) tax exempt non-profit organization in 2015, which enables public and corporation donations to be tax deductible. In 2014 APOPO set up a TB Scientific Advisory Committee to provide credibility. APOPO also has a research and development centre.

As of May 2024, APOPO employs over 450 staff in local operations and internationally, and has 279 rats and 79 dogs in various stages of breeding, detection training, research, or operations.

Scent detection training

[edit]

Full training takes approximately nine months on average, and is followed by a series of accreditation tests. Once trained, rats are able to work for approximately four to five years before they get retired.[3] All of the rats are bred and trained in the Morogoro breeding and training centre.[16] One rat costs approximately 6,000 euros to train.[3]

Training starts with socialization at the age of 5–6 weeks and then through the principles of 'operant conditioning'.[3][17] After two weeks they learn to associate a "click" sound with a food reward – banana or peanuts. Once they know that "click" means food, the rats are ready to be trained on a target scent. According to the type of specialization, a series of training stages are followed, each one building on skills learned in the previous stage. The complexity of their tasks gradually increases until they have to do a final blind test. Rats that fail the test are retired and are cared for the rest of their life.[3]

Detecting landmines

[edit]
HeroRAT and handler on a landmine training course

When the southern giant pouched rats (Cricetomys ansorgei) used by APOPO[18] are flown in, they must first be acclimatised to the specific country, and be accredited by the local national agency, which takes a number of months.[17]

Rats are only a component of integrated demining operations. Metal detectors and mechanical demining machines are also still necessary. Before the rats can be used, the land must first be prepared with special heavy machinery to cut the brush to ground level. Paths must also be cleared by conventional metal detectors at every 2m intervals for the handlers to safely walk on.[10][19]

The rats wear harnesses attached to a rope

The rats wear harnesses connected to a rope suspended between two handlers. Rats are led to search a demarcated zone of 10 x 20m (200 m2 [2,200 sq ft]) and indicate the scent of explosives usually by scratching at the ground. The points indicated by the rats are marked, and then followed up later by technicians using metal detectors; the mines that are found are then excavated by hand and destroyed.[19][20][21]

According to the NGO, the main advantage over conventional methods is speed. They point to past studies that show that less than three percent of landmine-suspected land actually contains any landmines. Animals such as dogs or rats detect only explosives and ignore scrap metal, such as old coins, nuts and bolts, etc., thus they are able to check areas of land faster than conventional methods.[22] They claim that one rat can check 200 m2 (2,200 sq ft) in around 20 minutes.[23] In the field, the practical rate is slower: rats are capable of searching up to 400 m2 (4,300 sq ft) each per day as part of a team that includes conventional equipment.[10]

The rats are indigenous to Sub-Saharan Africa so are suited to tropical climates and could be resistant to many endemic diseases. Few resources are needed to train and raise a rat to adulthood, and they have a lifespan of six to eight years. Furthermore, rats, unlike dogs, do not form bonds with specific trainers but rather are motivated to work for food, so trained rats can be transferred between handlers. In the minefields, the rats are too light to detonate a pressure-activated mine when walking over it. Their small size also means that they can be more easily transported to sites than dogs.[18]

Rats cannot search reliably in areas of thick vegetation and often search more erratically than humans, offering a lower level of assurance that the land is mine-free. Additionally, they can only work for short periods in the heat, limiting their output. Manual demining teams are still the globally preferred method of landmine clearance, and currently, APOPO is the only organisation in the world to use giant rats.[17][19][21]

Detecting tuberculosis

[edit]
A trained rat analysing sputum samples

Sputum samples that have already been conventionally tested are retested by the rats. The rats sniff a series of holes in a glass chamber, under which sputum samples are placed. When a rat detects tuberculosis (TB), it indicates this by keeping its nose in the sample hole and/or scratching at the floor of the cage.[24] The program began in Tanzania in 2007, double-checking samples from four government clinics, by 2016 some 1000 samples a week were sent by 24 clinics in and around Dar es Salaam and Morogoro. The rats have been screening samples from clinics in Mozambique since 2013. APOPO have a facility at the Eduardo Mondlane University in Maputo. In 2015 14 health centres in the city worked with it.

The key advantage of the rats is speed. Public clinics use microscopy to detect TB; this is slow and imprecise. In Mozambique only 50% of TB positive patients tested at clinics are actually identified, so the rats are used to double check the samples.[25] According to the NGO, one trained rat can evaluate 40 samples in 7 minutes, which a laboratory technician can process in a day.[24] The rats make it possible to mass-screen many samples. They work at low cost and a fast pace.

APOPO suggests it increased the detection of TB patients by over 40%.[26]

In 2015 the rats screened more than 40,000 sputum samples, thereby identifying over 1,150 positive samples that were missed by microscopy.

APOPO assisted Maputo DOTS public health clinics increase TB detection rate by 48% and contributed to halting 3,800 potential TB infections. Over 9,166 presumptive TB patients evaluated by the rats in 2015, 666 missed by conventional methods were diagnosed.

In 2015 APOPO began a study with the support of the USAID, screening prisoners in Tanzanian and Mozambican jails for tuberculosis. This study aimed to convince decision makers of the rats' use.

In 2015 to 2016 more than 2,500 prisoners were to be tested for TB in Mozambique and Tanzania.[27]

Fundraising

[edit]

APOPO has been funded by the Belgian, Flemish, Norwegian and Liechtenstein governments, the Polish government,[28] the United Nations Development Programme, the National Institutes of Health, USAID, HDIF, the European Union, the Province of Antwerp, the World Bank, the UBS Optimus Foundation, Trafigura Group, JTIF, the Skoll Foundation[29][non-primary source needed], Only The Brave Foundation and the lotteries from Sweden, the UK and Holland. It also receives money from private donors and public fundraising campaigns.[citation needed]

Awards

[edit]
  • 2016 : ranked 16th in the Global Geneva Top 500 NGOs.[30]
  • 2015 : ranked 24th in the Global Geneva Top 500 NGOs.[31]
  • 2013 : ranked 11th on the 'Top 100 NGO's' Global Journal's list. The organization is also featured in the top three lists for the best NGOs in terms of innovation and in the peace-building sector.[32]
  • 2013 : received the first level of "C2E" (committed to excellence) accreditation from the EFQM.[33]
  • 2020 : Magawa, a giant pouched rat trained by APOPO, received the PDSA Gold Medal for detecting unexploded ordnance in Cambodia.[34]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

APOPO

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
APOPO is a Belgian-registered non-profit organization founded in 1997 by Bart Weetjens and Christophe Cox, which trains African giant pouched rats—branded as HeroRATs—and dogs to detect landmines and through scent-based technologies. The organization focuses on humanitarian applications in post-conflict regions and high-disease-burden areas, leveraging the animals' superior olfactory capabilities to accelerate detection processes that traditional methods perform more slowly and at higher cost. APOPO's landmine detection program has cleared over 122 million square meters of contaminated land across countries including , , , and , destroying more than 155,000 explosives and benefiting nearly 2 million people by restoring land for agriculture, housing, and infrastructure. Independent studies, such as those by the International Centre for Humanitarian , confirm the operational efficiency of APOPO's mine-detection rats in reducing clearance times and costs while complying with international standards. In tuberculosis screening, primarily in sub-Saharan Africa, APOPO's rats evaluate sputum samples with a specificity often exceeding 90%, contributing to an average 48% increase in case detection rates at partnered clinics compared to microscopy alone, thereby identifying thousands of previously missed cases and averting potential transmissions. Peer-reviewed research validates this incremental value, particularly for low-bacillary-load samples overlooked by standard tests, though scalability depends on integration with laboratory confirmation. APOPO maintains high accountability, earning top ratings from evaluators like Charity Navigator, with minimal documented criticisms centered on transparency in financial breakdowns rather than operational efficacy.

Founding and Early Development

Origins and Initial Concept (1997–2000)

APOPO, a non-profit initiative focused on developing detection rats for humanitarian purposes, was formally launched on November 1, 1997, by Belgian entrepreneurs Bart Weetjens and Christophe Cox, former schoolmates who had previously collaborated on social ventures. Weetjens, a graduate in from the and an avid enthusiast since childhood, originated the core concept by applying first-hand knowledge of rats' olfactory capabilities to the persistent global challenge of landmine contamination, inspired in part by prior research on gerbils for scent detection tasks. The initial vision emphasized rats' advantages over conventional detection methods: their lightweight bodies to avoid triggering mines, acute sense of smell for identifying trace explosives like TNT, low training and maintenance costs, and rapid deployability in resource-scarce environments. Early conceptualization prioritized species selection and feasibility assessment. In March 1997, Weetjens consulted biologist Professor Ron Verhagen, who recommended the African giant pouched (Cricetomys gambianus), valued for its size (up to 1 kg), lifespan of up to eight years, intelligence, and indigenous presence across , facilitating local sourcing and ethical breeding. That , the Belgian government awarded the project's first grant to fund a proof-of-concept study, enabling partnerships with in for importing and acclimating rats, as the organization recognized Africa's high landmine burden from conflicts in regions like . Training protocols emerged iteratively from 1998 onward. In June 1998, experiments commenced in under biologist Ellen van Krunkelsven, using laboratory rats to refine positive reinforcement techniques—such as clicker conditioning paired with food rewards (e.g., bananas or avocados)—for identifying scents, achieving initial successes by mid-year in controlled settings. By 1998, the first captive-bred pouched rat, named Onzo, was produced, validating breeding feasibility. Progress accelerated in June 1999 when methods proved effective for detecting buried explosives in soil simulations, demonstrating rats' ability to distinguish target odors amid distractions without false positives in preliminary tests. By April 2000, APOPO relocated its operations to , establishing headquarters and dedicated training facilities at Sokoine University to transition from conceptual validation to operational scaling, marking the culmination of initial development amid growing evidence of the approach's viability over dogs or machines in cost-sensitive . This period laid the empirical groundwork, with from lab trials indicating detection accuracies exceeding 90% under ideal conditions, though real-field variables like weather and soil composition remained untested until subsequent phases.

Pioneering Landmine Detection Trials (2000–2010)

In April 2000, APOPO relocated its operations to Tanzania, establishing training facilities at Sokoine University of Agriculture to develop mine detection rats (MDRs). This move facilitated the breeding and initial training of African giant pouched rats for scent detection of explosives. In May 2001, the Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining (GICHD) evaluated APOPO's rats at the Tanzanian facility, confirming their detection capabilities and prompting refinements in training protocols, including a contract for research on Remote Explosive Scent Tracing (REST). The evaluation highlighted the rats' potential to identify TNT vapors efficiently. January 2003 marked APOPO's first field trials in , conducted in collaboration with Menschen gegen Minen (MgM), where rats successfully detected all 20 landmines in a dense, verified minefield. These results, later published in the Journal of Mine Action (Issue 9.2, February 2006), demonstrated the rats' accuracy in real conditions without false positives for scrap metal. In July 2004, the first 11 MDRs achieved accreditation under International Mine Action Standards (IMAS) in , supervised by GICHD and the National Demining Institute (IND). By September 2006, APOPO integrated its MDRs with manual deminers and mechanical methods to operate independently in Mozambique's mine clearance efforts. In September 2008, the IND designated APOPO as the sole operator for clearing , incorporating Mine Free District Evaluations to verify rat-assisted clearance. These trials established the efficacy of rat detection in accelerating humanitarian while adhering to international standards.

Organizational Framework

Leadership and Governance

APOPO was co-founded on November 1, 1997, by Bart Weetjens and Christophe Cox in , initially as a project to explore the use of pouched rats for detecting explosives, supported by a grant from the . Weetjens, a Buddhist and social entrepreneur with a background in , conceived the idea after reading about ' scent detection capabilities, while Cox, his former schoolmate, co-led the initiative's early development. Weetjens later stepped back from operational roles to pursue and related projects but remains a board member. As a Belgian vereniging zonder winstoogmerk (VZW, or non-profit association), APOPO is governed by a responsible for strategic oversight, financial accountability, and ethical compliance, including adherence to a formal code of ethics that applies to all staff, volunteers, and . The board is chaired by Herwig Leirs, a specializing in , with Joris Schoofs serving as vice-chairman; other members include Kristien Verbrugghen, Thierry de Meulder, Piet van Hove, Gerrit Ruitinga, Dr. Adee Schoon, Ulrich Lehner, Mario Tonini, and Bart Weetjens. This structure ensures multidisciplinary input, drawing from expertise in science, , and humanitarian operations, while annual reports and independent audits maintain transparency in operations across APOPO's global centers. Christophe Cox serves as CEO and co-founder, overseeing day-to-day management and expansion efforts, including APOPO's accreditation as an independent mine action operator in since 2006 and its official recognition as a Belgian NGO in 2022, which secured a €5 million multi-year grant from Belgium's for Development . Key executive roles include Ronald Simon as , Michael Heiman as Head of Mine Action, Dr. Cindy Fast as Head of Training, and Dr. Tefera Agizew as Head of detection programs. International affiliates, such as APOPO (directed by Charlie Richter with Kristen Davis as board chairwoman) and the APOPO Swiss Foundation (chaired by Yves Hervieu-Causse), operate under aligned governance to support fundraising and partnerships while complying with local regulations. APOPO 's board of trustees, numbering five as of 2023, focuses on donor relations and operational support in line with charity standards.

Operational Centers and Partnerships

APOPO maintains its primary operational headquarters and training facilities at the in , , where detection animals are researched, trained, and prepared for deployment. This center has supported the refinement of scent detection protocols for over two decades, encompassing both HeroRATs for landmine and applications and HeroDOGs for technical surveys. Additional visitor and demonstration sites, such as the APOPO Visitor Center in , , facilitate public education on operations while integrating with field activities in the region. Field operations span multiple countries, focusing on landmine clearance in post-conflict areas and tuberculosis detection in healthcare-limited settings. Landmine detection efforts operate in (since 2014, covering provinces including , Preah Vihear, , and Ratanakiri), (as an independent operator since 2007), (with 2,410 explosives destroyed in 2024 alone), (targeting the region), (permanent presence from January 2024 following 2023 scoping), and (in the since January 2021). screening programs are active in and , leveraging trained rats to identify cases in clinical samples. Strategic partnerships enhance APOPO's deployment and impact, particularly through collaborations with national mine action bodies. In Cambodia, APOPO partners with the Cambodian Mine Action Centre (CMAC) since 2014, integrating rats and dogs into survey and clearance tasks across contaminated sites; this agreement was extended through 2028 in December 2023. Operations in Angola align with the National Demining Institute for certification of cleared areas. For emerging applications like wildlife conservation, APOPO collaborates with Sustainable Agriculture Tanzania (SAT) to detect illegal snares in the Uluguru Mountains ecosystem. Research and innovation efforts include a joint project with GEA Group to train rats for search-and-rescue in disaster zones. APOPO's U.S. branch in Washington, D.C., facilitates ties with American donors and operational allies to fund global activities. These alliances prioritize verifiable field outcomes, such as explosive detections and cost efficiencies, over unproven alternatives.

Core Technologies

Scent Detection Training Protocols for HeroRATs

APOPO's HeroRATs, African giant pouched rats (Cricetomys gambianus), undergo scent detection training based on principles, utilizing positive reinforcement through to associate a click sound with food rewards such as bananas or milk. This methodology enables the rats to discriminate target odors—explosive compounds like TNT for landmine detection or Mycobacterium tuberculosis biomarkers in samples for screening—from non-target scents. Training begins with captive-bred pups selected from high-performing lineages to enhance genetic aptitude for detection tasks, spanning 9 to 12 months until certification. The initial socialization phase commences at 4 weeks of age, when pups' eyes open, involving daily handling by trainers to acclimate them to human presence, facility sounds, and varied environmental stimuli, fostering confidence and reducing stress responses. By 10 weeks, post-weaning, basic introduces the auditory cue paired repeatedly with immediate food delivery, establishing the foundation for reward-based learning without punishment. Scent discrimination follows, where rats are presented with containers—tea eggs for TNT-infused samples in landmine protocols or sputum pots for TB—rewarded solely for interacting with target-positive items, such as by or prolonged sniffing. Non-target exposures ensure specificity, with target scents gradually diluted to mimic real-world concentrations. Application-specific protocols diverge thereafter. For landmine detection, rats advance to soil-based simulations outdoors, harnessed to dig for buried TNT-laden tea eggs, progressing to field exercises with deactivated explosives in progressively larger areas up to 400 square meters. Indication involves scratching at the site, with shaded rest areas provided during sessions limited to 20-30 minutes to maintain focus amid tropical conditions. Tuberculosis training emphasizes rapid multi-sample evaluation in controlled chambers, where rats scan lines of 10 pots, required to hold their nose over positives for at least 3 seconds before receiving rewards, simulating diagnostic workflows. Certification demands rigorous blind testing: landmine rats must detect all planted explosives with no more than one false positive in test fields, verified solely by supervisors aware of layouts. TB rats graduate by identifying all positives, missing at most one, and falsely indicating on two or fewer negatives across evaluations. Throughout, rats receive enriched diets, exercise, and veterinary care, with non-performers reassigned to breeding or released if wild-origin, ensuring welfare aligns with detection efficacy. Recent optimizations, such as enhanced training fields, have shortened landmine protocols by up to 4 months while accrediting dozens annually for deployment.

Integration of HeroDOGs for Technical Surveys

APOPO began integrating HeroDOGs, specialized mine detection dogs, into its operations in 2017 as Technical Survey Dogs (TSDs) to complement HeroRATs in landmine clearance efforts. These dogs, primarily Belgian Malinois and breeds, are trained to detect explosives in overgrown or unprepared terrain where rats cannot operate effectively due to the need for cleared ground. This integration addresses limitations in traditional manual surveys, which are slow and costly, by enabling dogs to survey up to 2,000 square meters per day while generating geospatial data for contamination mapping. The training protocol for HeroDOGs emphasizes scent detection of explosives like TNT, using a track-and-trace system where handlers follow the dog's movements with GPS-enabled equipment to log alerts precisely. Unlike rats, which provide rapid initial screening on flat, -free surfaces, dogs excel in dense or sloped areas, pinpointing potential hazards for subsequent verification by deminers or machinery. APOPO's approach positions HeroDOGs after non-technical surveys to delineate suspected contaminated zones, reducing the area requiring full clearance by up to 80% in some cases, as evidenced in Cambodian and African field tests. Deployment of HeroDOGs has expanded internationally, notably in starting in 2024, where all-female handler teams partnered with organizations like the Mines Advisory Group (MAG) to survey post-conflict areas contaminated by cluster munitions and . Each dog team operates with minimal ground preparation, alerting via trained behaviors such as sitting or barking, followed by handler confirmation and data integration into GIS systems for release certificates. This method has accelerated clearance rates, with HeroDOGs surveying areas twice as fast as manual methods alone, contributing to the safe release of millions of square meters of land. Empirical data from APOPO's programs indicate HeroDOGs achieve detection rates comparable to accredited standards, with false positive rates minimized through rigorous validation against known minefields. Integration challenges include handler skill requirements and environmental factors like , but overall, the dogs enhance in resource-limited settings by prioritizing high-risk zones for targeted intervention.

Primary Applications

Landmine and Explosive Remnant Clearance

APOPO utilizes HeroRATs—African giant pouched rats trained to detect the chemical signature of TNT in landmines and explosive remnants of war (ERW)—to accelerate clearance operations in contaminated post-conflict zones. These rats, maintained at under 1 kilogram, traverse suspect areas on harnesses without triggering pressure-fused devices, signaling detections by scratching the ground for handler verification and marking. Training spans approximately nine months at APOPO's Tanzania facility, conditioning rats to ignore non-explosive metal debris and respond selectively to target odors. A single HeroRAT clears an area comparable to a (roughly 260 square meters) in 30 minutes, starkly contrasting the up to four days required by a operator with a , which often yields false positives from scrap. Integrated into multi-method protocols, HeroRATs precede manual and mechanical vegetation removal, confirming explosive absence or pinpointing threats to minimize detector sweeps and achieve time savings of up to 45% in hybrid operations. HeroDOGs supplement for technical surveys in dense terrain, enhancing overall precision. Deployments span (operational since the 2010s), , , with recent expansions to (May 2023) and (registered 2017). By December 2023, APOPO's rat-assisted efforts contributed to clearing 100 million square meters of land, yielding removal of 31,739 landmines, 90,140 ERW, and related munitions, thereby safeguarding over 2 million people and enabling agricultural and community reuse. Operational evaluations report HeroRAT detection rates averaging 97.8% for planted targets, with minimal false indications, though performance requires consistent reinforcement to avert effects in prolonged non-reward scenarios. Exemplary rats include , who identified 71 landmines and 38 items prior to retirement in May 2021, and Ronin, who detected 109 landmines and 15 ERW by April 2025, setting a for verified finds. This olfactory approach circumvents limitations in iron-rich soils or junk-laden fields, proving particularly efficacious against anti-personnel mines and cluster munitions prevalent in these theaters.

Tuberculosis Case Detection in Resource-Limited Settings

APOPO employs trained African giant pouched rats, known as HeroRATs, to identify Mycobacterium tuberculosis in sputum samples as a secondary screening tool in resource-limited clinics, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. These rats detect the unique odor signature of TB bacteria, which initial microscopic examination often misses due to low bacterial loads in early-stage or pediatric cases. Operationally, after routine sputum smear microscopy yields negative results, samples are presented to rats in controlled testing chambers where the animals indicate positives by pausing or scratching at designated ports, enabling rapid re-evaluation of up to 100 samples in 20 minutes per rat. This approach addresses diagnostic gaps in settings where advanced methods like culture or GeneXpert are scarce or delayed, with deployments in Tanzania since 2007 and expansions to Mozambique, Ethiopia, and other high-burden countries. Training protocols mirror those for landmine detection, involving positive reinforcement with food rewards to associate TB-scented samples with treats, achieving operational readiness in 8-10 months. Field studies validate the rats' sensitivity, with peer-reviewed evaluations reporting detection rates of 82% for confirmed TB cases compared to gold-standard culture confirmation, and an incremental yield of 40% more cases beyond alone. By the end of 2021, APOPO rats had screened over 805,000 samples from presumptive TB patients, identifying 23,298 additional cases that would otherwise have been overlooked, contributing to earlier treatment initiation and reduced transmission. Recent as of 2025 indicate cumulative detections exceeding 30,000 cases across programs. In resource-limited environments, the program's cost-effectiveness stems from minimal operational expenses—rats require little sustenance and infrastructure—contrasting with costly lab-based diagnostics that can take weeks. Independent evaluations highlight improved pediatric and drug-resistant TB detection, with rats enhancing overall clinic positivity rates by 40-52% in targeted screenings. However, rat indications necessitate mycobacterial culture or molecular confirmation to rule out false positives, which occur at rates around 5-10% depending on sample , ensuring integration as a tool rather than standalone . This methodology has proven scalable in high-prevalence areas, supporting WHO-endorsed strategies for closing the global TB detection gap estimated at 4.1 million undiagnosed cases annually.

Emerging Use in Wildlife Trafficking Prevention

APOPO initiated training programs for HeroRATs to detect illegally trafficked wildlife products, targeting scents from items such as scales, ivory, horn, hide and hair, and African blackwood. These efforts aim to intercept at international ports and airports, where traditional detection methods often face capacity limitations. In a proof-of-principle study published on October 30, 2024, in Frontiers in Conservation Science, researchers trained pouched rats (Cricetomys ansorgei) using positive to indicate target scents by pausing with their nose in a detection port, associating detection with food rewards. The rats underwent discrimination training to differentiate target odors from non-target distractors like , , and legal goods, achieving reliable detection even when products were concealed among other substances or in low quantities. Retention tests showed the rats maintained 100% accuracy in identifying scales, rhino horn, and African blackwood after five to eight months without exposure to the scents. Field trials expanded in 2024 at seaports, where HeroRATs equipped with signaling vests alerted handlers to hidden via beeping devices, demonstrating operational feasibility in real-world screening. Partnerships with organizations like the Endangered Wildlife Trust and local port authorities in and support these deployments, focusing on high-traffic smuggling routes. Early results indicate potential for scalable, low-cost integration with existing customs protocols, though full verification requires ongoing independent evaluations of false positive rates in diverse environmental conditions.

Empirical Effectiveness and Impact Metrics

Quantitative Performance Data from Field Deployments

In landmine clearance operations, APOPO's HeroRATs have demonstrated high reliability, with over 85% passing International Mine Action Standards (IMAS) accreditation tests on the first attempt and no reported instances of missing explosives since deployments began in 2006. In Mozambique field trials, HeroRAT teams searched 92,359 square meters, contributing to the clearance of 306,244 square meters total while saving 5.6 months of manual demining time and €90,103 in costs compared to manual methods alone. Similar results in Angola saw HeroRATs cover 161,656 square meters, aiding clearance of 494,625 square meters overall and reducing timelines by 6 months, with overall time savings ranging from 45% to 50% when integrated with manual detection. Productivity metrics indicate one HeroRAT team matches that of a mine detection dog team, with individual rats like Ronin detecting 109 landmines and 15 unexploded ordnance items in Cambodian operations as of April 2025. For tuberculosis detection in resource-limited clinics, HeroRATs have screened over 805,263 sputum samples from presumptive cases by the end of 2021 across , , and , identifying 23,298 additional TB-positive cases missed by initial . Field evaluations report sensitivity rates averaging 68.4% to 80.4% for detecting confirmed TB cases, with specificity from 72.4% to 87.3%, enabling clinics to increase overall detection by 40% to 48% when rats serve as a confirmatory screening tool. In pediatric TB deployments in , rats have shown elevated detection capabilities, addressing gaps in conventional diagnostics for children.
ApplicationKey MetricValueSource Context
Landmine Detection (Cambodia, 2016)Area searched per day per team2,891 m²Four-month operational average
TB Detection (Cumulative to 2021)Samples screened / Additional cases805,263 / 23,298Multi-country field programs
TB Detection (Field Studies)Detection increase in clinics40-48%Integration with microscopy in /

Comparative Cost-Benefit Analyses Against Alternatives

APOPO's HeroRATs for landmine detection offer significant speed advantages over traditional metal detectors and manual demining, with a single rat clearing an area equivalent to a tennis court (approximately 260 m²) in 30 minutes, compared to up to four days for a deminer using a metal detector. This efficiency stems from the rats' ability to ignore scrap metal and focus solely on explosive scents, reducing false positives that plague detector-based methods in metal-contaminated post-conflict zones. APOPO reports an average clearance cost of €0.65 per m² in operations, below national averages in countries like Cambodia, though independent verification of full operational costs remains limited due to unpublished detailed accounts. Compared to mine detection dogs (MDDs), HeroRATs are less resource-intensive, with lower training and maintenance costs, and compatibility with any trained handler, while dogs require specialized handlers and are hindered by vegetation or weather. HeroRATs excel in initial surveys of loose or dry soils where metal detectors underperform, enabling faster land release at reduced costs, though they necessitate prior vegetation clearance and are ineffective in cold climates. Integration with APOPO's HeroDOGs for technical surveys further optimizes processes by delineating contaminated areas, avoiding full manual clearance and yielding overall cost savings versus standalone mechanical or human methods. For tuberculosis detection, HeroRATs provide a low-cost screening tool, with operational costs of approximately 2,600 Tanzanian shillings (about $0.90 USD) per sample screened, versus 4,700–7,000 shillings ($1.60–$2.40 USD) for smear and 42,000 shillings ($14 USD) for molecular tests like GeneXpert. Training a TB detection costs around $2,000 USD over nine months, enabling one to screen up to 140 samples in 40 minutes or 400 per week, far outpacing lab-based methods that fewer samples daily at higher per-test expenses. This yields a reported cost of €1 per sample tested, with rats identifying cases missed by initial , such as in low-burden samples from children, potentially averting thousands of secondary infections.
Detection MethodCost per Sample (USD approx.)Samples Screened per SessionKey Limitations vs. Rats
HeroRATs$0.90140 in 40 minRequires confirmation testing; lab dependency post-screening
Smear Microscopy$1.60–$2.40Limited (hours per batch)Lower sensitivity for low-burden cases
GeneXpert$15–$20 (plus device $17,000)1–few per runHigh equipment/infrastructure needs in resource-poor settings
Despite these advantages, benefits hinge on rat-positive samples undergoing confirmatory lab tests, as rats achieve 82% accuracy against clinical standards but cannot speciate strains or quantify loads. In both applications, APOPO's approach complements rather than replaces alternatives, enhancing overall system efficiency in resource-limited environments where speed and affordability outweigh standalone high-tech precision.

Challenges, Limitations, and Critiques

Technical and Operational Constraints

APOPO's HeroRATs, African giant pouched rats (Cricetomys ansorgei), require 9 to 12 months of training before operational deployment, necessitating continuous recruitment and breeding to maintain teams, as working rats retire after 6 to 7 years due to age-related performance decline or health issues such as on exposed ears despite preventive sunscreen application. HeroDOGs, typically breeds like Belgian Malinois or Labrador Retrievers, face similar turnover, with operational careers averaging 6 years before retirement for health or productivity reasons. This finite lifespan imposes logistical demands for replacement training, with costs estimated at approximately €9,000 per rat. Operational deployments are constrained by animal physiology and environmental factors. HeroRATs conduct searches in 20- to 30-minute sessions, five days per week, primarily in early mornings to mitigate heat stress in tropical settings, covering up to 200 square meters per in that time but limited to detecting explosives scents up to 15-20 cm underground. HeroDOGs operate in shorter 30- to 60-minute bursts averaging 5 hours weekly, with mandatory breaks to prevent fatigue, and are restricted to temperatures between 5°C and 33°C, halting in rain due to scent plume disruption or excessive heat. Both require handlers for guidance and cannot independently excavate or neutralize threats, relying on subsequent human verification and clearance, which introduces delays in contested or unmapped terrains. Technical limitations include verification dependencies and detection specificity. Rat indications in landmine fields, signaled by pausing and , must be probed and confirmed by deminers, as handlers cannot independently validate responses without unearthing explosives, potentially leading to operational inefficiencies if false indications occur, though APOPO reports 100% field accuracy post-verification. For tuberculosis screening, rats exhibit higher sensitivity than smear microscopy (detecting up to 48% more cases) but lower specificity, necessitating confirmatory tests like concentrated smears or GeneXpert for positives, and perform less reliably on low-bacillary-load samples from children or patients; they cannot differentiate drug-resistant strains. HeroDOGs in technical surveys cover up to 2,000 m² daily in vegetated areas but share scent-based vulnerabilities to weather and require GPS tracking for handler oversight. Scalability is further hampered by animal numbers—APOPO maintains around 102 operational dogs and comparable rat cohorts across programs—and logistical needs like sample transport to fixed TB screening stations, limiting real-time field use and expansion without proportional increases in breeding, training infrastructure, and funding. These biological imperatives ensure non-triggering detection (rats under 1.5 kg evade anti-personnel mines) but underscore reliance on hybrid human-animal systems, where animal fatigue or environmental mismatches can reduce daily throughput compared to mechanical alternatives.

Scrutiny on Scalability and Verification Needs

Despite empirical successes in field trials, scaling APOPO's HeroRAT technology faces biological and logistical constraints inherent to using live animals. African giant pouched rats have a working lifespan of approximately 4-5 years after an 8-9 month period, limiting long-term deployment without continuous breeding and retraining programs. Operational is further hindered by the need for specialized handlers, climate-controlled environments to prevent heat stress, and integration with human-led verification, as rats alone cannot cover vast contaminated areas—APOPO's HeroRATs have cleared over 100 million square meters since , but this represents a fraction of global minefields estimated at billions of square meters. Expert analyses note skepticism regarding broader acceptability and of animal-based detection systems, particularly for screening in high-volume clinical settings, due to dependencies on standards and potential variability in rat performance under stress. Verification of HeroRAT indications remains a critical bottleneck, requiring manual or technological confirmation to mitigate risks of false positives or misses. In landmine detection, rats signal by scratching, prompting deminers to probe with metal detectors and excavate, but handlers cannot independently confirm accuracy in real-time, leading to reliance on post-indication checks that slow overall clearance rates. Field studies reveal operational accuracy declines significantly within days of deployment, though rates remain stable, underscoring the need for rigorous, repeated independent audits beyond APOPO's internal validations (e.g., rats must make no more than one false indication per 400 square meters in ). For tuberculosis detection, rat-positive samples undergo confirmatory testing via or PCR (e.g., GeneXpert), as HeroRATs are positioned as a tool rather than a standalone diagnostic by bodies like the , with specificity rates around 92-97% but necessitating lab follow-up to address any residual error margins. This dual-step process highlights verification needs driven by regulatory standards and causal requirements for causal certainty in health outcomes, where unverified rat alerts could lead to overtreatment or missed cases in resource-limited settings. Peer-reviewed evaluations emphasize that while rats exhibit low false-positive rates in controlled conditions, real-world demands enhanced for performance tracking to ensure reproducibility across handlers and environments.

Sustainability and Recognition

Funding Mechanisms and Donor Dependencies

APOPO's funding primarily derives from philanthropic grants, government contributions, and individual donations channeled through structured programs. Major mechanisms include unrestricted grants from lotteries such as the People's Postcode Lottery, which provided flexible support for and community safety initiatives as of 2025, and targeted foundation funding from entities like the Howard G. Buffett Foundation. Government aid from sources including Belgian, Flemish, Norwegian, and Liechtenstein entities supplements these, often tied to specific mine action or tuberculosis detection projects. Individual giving is facilitated via virtual rat adoptions, monthly pledges, and donor-advised funds, which cover operational costs like animal care and training. Financial statements for APOPO US Inc., audited annually, reveal a dominated by contributions, with total operating support varying by year but consistently reliant on a mix of restricted and unrestricted funds. For instance, in the year ended December 31, 2021, contributions from three donors comprised approximately 30% of total operating revenue, highlighting potential vulnerabilities to fluctuations in major supporter commitments. Recent annual reports emphasize diversification efforts, including partnerships with Swiss, , and U.K. foundations, yet underscore the nonprofit's dependence on international donor networks for scaling operations in resource-limited settings. Donor dependencies pose risks to sustainability, as APOPO's expansion—such as establishing tuberculosis labs in , , and by 2023—relies on predictable inflows amid volatile global aid landscapes. Unrestricted funding, like that from players, enables adaptive allocation to high-impact areas, but concentration in fewer large grants could amplify disruptions from policy shifts or economic downturns affecting philanthropists. APOPO mitigates this through transparent financial reporting and appeals for recurring donations, which provide stable baselines for long-term planning.

Key Awards and Independent Evaluations

APOPO's HeroRATs have garnered notable recognition for their contributions to landmine clearance and tuberculosis detection. In 2020, HeroRAT Magawa, based in Cambodia, received the People's Dispensary for Sick Animals (PDSA) Gold Medal—the animal equivalent of the George Cross—for detecting over 100 landmines and unexploded ordnance, saving numerous lives through enhanced demining efficiency. In April 2025, HeroRAT Ronin set a Guinness World Records title by detecting 109 landmines and 15 unexploded ordnance items, exceeding the prior record held by Magawa and demonstrating sustained operational impact in Cambodian fields. Organizationally, APOPO earned the Most Innovative Solution Award in at the World Government Summit in , selected from 15 global projects for its rat-based detection technology's potential to address humanitarian challenges. In 2022, APOPO CEO and co-founder Christophe Cox received the Christoffel Plantin Prize, an annual Belgian award for individuals elevating the nation's international reputation, honoring APOPO's deployment of rats across multiple countries since 1997. Independent evaluations affirm APOPO's operational standards and effectiveness. Charity Navigator rates APOPO US Inc. at 4 out of 4 stars, reflecting strong financial health, accountability, and transparency based on audited financials and metrics as of the latest review. For detection, peer-reviewed studies validate HeroRAT performance; a 2025 PLOS ONE analysis of deployments in showed rats identifying 48% more confirmed cases missed by Xpert MTB/RIF testing, with sensitivity exceeding 80% in controlled evaluations. Earlier research in Emerging Infectious Diseases (2011) reported rats achieving 86.8% sensitivity and 92.3% specificity in detecting pulmonary TB from samples in high-burden settings, outperforming initial in speed and case yield. A 2015 American Journal of and Hygiene study confirmed similar diagnostic accuracy (79% sensitivity, 97% specificity) using shipped samples from high-endemic areas, supporting . In landmine detection, APOPO's rats undergo accreditation per International Mine Action Standards (IMAS), involving independent verification of detection thresholds before field use, as documented in operational audits in and since 2004. These protocols ensure false positive rates below 0.01% in controlled tests, enabling clearance of over 22 million square meters of land by 2023 without triggering devices due to the rats' light weight.

References

  1. https://apopo.org/who-we-are/our-history/
  2. https://apopo.org/
  3. https://red-social-innovation.com/en/solution/apopos-life-saving-rats-speeding-up-landmine-removal-and-tb-diagnosis/
  4. https://www.gichd.org/publications-resources/publications/mine-detection-rats-apopo-efficiency-and-effectiveness-study-using-mdr-capability/
  5. https://apopo.org/what-we-do/detecting-tuberculosis/our-impact/
  6. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0321866
  7. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3089413/
  8. https://www.charitynavigator.org/ein/471389723
  9. https://reliefweb.int/report/mozambique/herorats-mozambique-how-it-all-began
  10. https://apopo.org/latest/apopo-celebrates-25-years/
  11. https://www.npr.org/sections/goats-and-soda/2024/06/13/g-s1-4277/rats-africa-heroes-search-and-rescue-mines-tb
  12. https://apopo.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/APOPO-Annual-Report-2024.pdf
  13. https://apopo.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/APOPOCodeofEthicsandProfessionalConduct.pdf
  14. https://apopo.org/who-we-are/our-people/
  15. https://apopo.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/APOPO-audit-report-2021.pdf
  16. https://apopo.org/contact-us/apopo-us/
  17. https://apopo.org/contact-us/apopo-swiss-foundation/
  18. https://register-of-charities.charitycommission.gov.uk/en/about-the-register-of-charities?p_p_id=uk_gov_ccew_onereg_charitydetails_web_portlet_CharityDetailsPortlet&p_p_lifecycle=2&p_p_state=maximized&p_p_mode=view&p_p_resource_id=%252Faccounts-resource&p_p_cacheability=cacheLevelPage&_uk_gov_ccew_onereg_charitydetails_web_portlet_CharityDetailsPortlet_objectiveId=A16007136&_uk_gov_ccew_onereg_charitydetails_web_portlet_CharityDetailsPortlet_priv_r_p_mvcRenderCommandName=%252Faccounts-and-annual-returns&_uk_gov_ccew_onereg_charitydetails_web_portlet_CharityDetailsPortlet_priv_r_p_organisationNumber=5182218
  19. https://apopo.org/herorats/training-and-research/
  20. https://apopo.org/support-us/apopo-visitor-center/
  21. https://apopo.org/what-we-do/detecting-landmines-and-explosives/where-we-work/apopo-in-cambodia/
  22. https://apopo.org/who-we-are/where-we-work/
  23. https://apopo.org/angola-demining-2024/
  24. https://apopo.org/what-we-do/detecting-landmines-and-explosives/where-we-work/apopo-in-azerbaijan/
  25. https://apopo.org/what-we-do/detecting-landmines-and-explosives/where-we-work/apopo-in-ukraine/
  26. https://apopo.org/latest/us-government-visit-apopo-zimbabwe/
  27. https://apopo.org/who-we-are/faqs/
  28. https://apopo.org/latest/2021/12/apopo-cmac-extend-collaboration/
  29. https://reliefweb.int/report/cambodia/apopo-extends-collaboration-landmine-clearance-cambodia-cmac
  30. https://apopo.org/latest/partnerships-for-wildlife-conservation/
  31. https://apopo.org/apopo-gea-partnership-rescuerats-project/
  32. https://apopo.org/a-trusted-partner/
  33. https://apopo.org/what-we-do/detecting-landmines-and-explosives/how-we-do-it/mdr-training/
  34. https://apopo.org/what-we-do/detecting-tuberculosis/how-we-do-it/tb-detection-rat-training/
  35. https://apopo.org/how-herorats-are-trained/
  36. https://apopo.org/latest/technical-survey-dog-accreditation/
  37. https://apopo.org/herodogs/frequently-asked-questions/
  38. https://apopo.org/herodogs/
  39. https://reliefweb.int/report/world/herodogs-join-apopo-animal-team
  40. https://apopo.org/herodogs/landmine-dog-training-and-development/
  41. https://apopo.org/what-we-do/detecting-landmines-and-explosives/
  42. https://www.esri.com/about/newsroom/arcuser/canines-clear-minefields-with-gis
  43. https://apopo.org/press-release-eu-funds-technical-survey-dogs-to-clear-ukraine/
  44. https://www.maginternational.org/whats-happening/dog-teams-trained-in-landmine-detection-deploy-in/
  45. https://apopo.org/what-we-do/detecting-landmines-and-explosives/how-we-do-it
  46. https://apopo.org/herorats/why-herorats/
  47. https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2355&context=cisr-globalcwd
  48. https://apopo.org/apopo-mine-action-approach-2025/
  49. https://apopo.org/apopo-reaches-milestone-in-landmine-clearance/
  50. https://reliefweb.int/report/colombia/apopo-detect-landmines-colombia
  51. https://www.hstoday.us/subject-matter-areas/emergency-preparedness/worlds-most-heroic-rat-retires-after-finding-more-than-70-landmines/
  52. https://apopo.org/herorat-ronin-breaks-guinness-world-records-title/
  53. https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1056&context=cisr-journal
  54. https://apopo.org/what-we-do/detecting-tuberculosis/
  55. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10162364/
  56. https://apopo.org/apopo-tb-detection-study-2024/
  57. https://bmcinfectdis.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12879-024-09313-0
  58. https://www.medangel.org/giant-rats-and-dedicated-volunteers-transform-tb-detection-in-tanzania/
  59. https://www.kvue.com/article/news/nation-world/tanzanian-rats-sniff-land-mines-tuberculosis/507-5de905f9-c31d-44f0-854c-dc5d8fe0b2df
  60. https://apopo.org/herorats/wildlife-detection/
  61. https://apopo.org/wildlife-detection-rats-herorats-apopo-study/
  62. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/conservation-science/articles/10.3389/fcosc.2024.1444126/full
  63. https://e360.yale.edu/digest/trained-rats-smuggled-wildlife
  64. https://apopo.org/rodents-of-unusual-size-herorats/
  65. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zu1xGFV6230
  66. https://www.frontiersin.org/news/2024/10/30/giant-rats-fight-illegal-wildlife-trade
  67. https://www.gichd.org/fileadmin/uploads/gichd/Publications/APOPO-GICHD-Mine-Detection-Rats-30Jun2016.pdf
  68. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3264140/
  69. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230590426_Pouched_Rats%27_Detection_of_Tuberculosis_in_Human_Sputum_Comparison_to_Culturing_and_Polymerase_Chain_Reaction
  70. https://apopo.org/tb-detection-rats-plos-one-study/
  71. https://www.nature.com/articles/pr201840
  72. https://apopo.org/what-we-do/detecting-landmines-and-explosives/how-we-do-it/mine-clearance/
  73. https://apopo.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/APOPO_Annual-Report-2023.pdf
  74. https://nolandmines.com/APOPO%2520rats.html
  75. https://docs-library.unoda.org/Convention_on_Certain_Conventional_Weapons_-Protocol_V_Meeting_of_Experts_%282025%29/2025_Meeting_of_Experts_on_CCW_PV_-_Panel_II_%28APOPO%29.pdf
  76. https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2024/dec/18/global-health-tanzania-giant-african-pouched-rats-detect-tuberculosis-tb
  77. https://www.givingwhatwecan.org/blog/the-worlds-most-cost-effective-rats
  78. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-81086-x
  79. https://apopo.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/APOPO_annual-report-2021-final.pdf
  80. https://apopo.org/what-we-do/detecting-landmines-and-explosives/faqs/
  81. https://apopo.org/what-we-do/detecting-landmines-and-explosives/how-we-do-it/mine-clearance
  82. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3004686/
  83. https://apopo.org/what-we-do/detecting-tuberculosis/faqs/
  84. https://healthpolicy-watch.news/tanzania-deploys-herorats-to-improve-tuberculosis-diagnosis/
  85. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7832940/
  86. https://publications.ersnet.org/content/erj/55/3/1902243
  87. https://phys.org/news/2025-09-tuberculosis-tanzanian-hero-rats-sniffing.html
  88. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8500793/
  89. https://apopo.org/apopo-peoples-postcode-lottery-humanitarian-funding/
  90. https://apopo.org/who-we-are/partners-and-donors/
  91. https://apopo.org/regular-donations-2025/
  92. https://apopo.org/daf/
  93. https://apopo.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/APOPO-2021-Financial-Statement.pdf
  94. https://apopo.org/financial-publication/
  95. https://apopo.org/latest/2020/09/herorat-magawa-receives-award-for-life-saving-bravery/
  96. https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c2ewxjjw842o
  97. https://apopo.org/who-we-are/awards/2016/most-innovative-solution-award-for-apopo/
  98. https://apopo.org/news/2022/10/christoffel-plantin-prize-2022/
  99. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282659268_Evaluation_of_Giant_African_Pouched_Rats_for_Detection_of_Pulmonary_Tuberculosis_in_Patients_from_a_High-Endemic_Setting
  100. https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/cisr-globalcwd/1293/
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.