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History of Jainism
Jainism is an ancient Indian religion belonging to the Śramaṇa tradition. Jains trace their history through a lineage of twenty-four tirthankaras (ford-makers), revering Rishabhanatha as the first in the present time-cycle. While tradition considers the dharma eternal, scholarly consensus places its verifiable historical roots in the 9th–8th century BCE, with the last two tirthankaras, Parshvanatha (c. 9th-8th c. BCE) and Mahavira (c. 6th c. BCE), widely accepted as historical figures. Mahavira is viewed by scholars not as a founder, but as a reformer of the pre-existing community established by Parshvanatha.
Following Mahavira's nirvana (c. 527 BCE, the start of the Vira Nirvana Samvat era), Jainism spread across India. Early epigraphic evidence, like the Hathigumpha inscription, attests to royal patronage under figures like King Kharavela of Kalinga (c. 2nd-1st c. BCE). Traditional accounts, primarily from the 12th-century Parishishtaparvan, describe Chandragupta Maurya embracing Jainism , while Mauryan emperors like Ashoka and Samprati are mentioned in edicts and Jain texts respectively. Archaeological finds at Kankali Tila (Mathura) confirm a thriving community with temples, stupas, and a sophisticated artistic tradition under the Kushanas (c. 1st-3rd c. CE), while inscriptions and temples at Udayagiri Caves (Madhya Pradesh) and Deogarh (Uttar Pradesh) show continued prosperity under the Guptas (c. 4th-6th c. CE).
The Classical Age (c. 7th–13th c. CE) saw significant patronage, particularly in the Deccan under dynasties like the Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, and Western Gangas, leading to the creation of major literary works (Adi Purana) and monuments like the Gommateshwara statue at Shravanabelagola. In Western India, the Chaulukyas were notable patrons, supporting scholars like Hemachandra and ministers who built the Dilwara Temples. The gradual schism between the two main sects, Digambara and Śvētāmbara, likely began around the 1st century CE and was solidified by the 5th century CE, primarily over differences in ascetic practices (nudity) and scriptural authority.
From the 12th century onwards, Jainism faced challenges due to the rise of competing devotional movements like Lingayatism and persecution during Mughal Empire, leading to the destruction of some temples. However, the community showed resilience, adapting as mercantile classes and influencing rulers like Emperor Akbar, who, advised by the Śvetāmbara monk Hiravijaya, temporarily banned animal slaughter during Paryushana. The Modern Period saw interactions with colonial rule, academic recognition spurred by scholars like Hermann Jacobi, monastic revivals led by figures such as Acharya Shantisagar, and the emergence of reform movements.
While Jain tradition considers the dharma eternal, scholarly consensus traces its verifiable historical roots to the 9th–8th century BCE. Scholars consider the last two tirthankara (ford-makers), Parshvanatha and Mahavira (6th century BCE) as historical figures. The preceding 22 tirthankaras are generally regarded as legendary or mythological figures within historical analysis. Some scholars, including Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, proposed that Jainism's roots may predate the composition of the Vedas.
Some scholars hypothesize that Jain practices originated in the Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), reflecting pre-Indo-Aryan spirituality. This theory often points to IVC seals depicting figures in meditative postures resembling kayotsarga and the bull motif associated with Rishabhanatha, the first tirthankara. However, this connection remains speculative and lacks definitive scholarly consensus.[citation needed]
Jainism emerged as part of the Śramaṇa tradition, a diverse group of non-Vedic ascetic movements in ancient India that also included Buddhism and Ājīvika. These traditions rejected Vedic authority and emphasized personal ascetic effort for liberation.[citation needed] Within this context, Jain tradition posits a lineage of 24 Tirthankaras, believed to guide humanity across cosmic time cycles. While traditional accounts ascribe vast lifespans and superhuman attributes to them, figures like Rishabha are mentioned (though interpreted differently) in Vedic texts, and Neminatha (the 22nd) is traditionally linked as a cousin of Krishna.
Parshvanatha (c. 9th–8th century BCE), the 23rd tirthankara, is the earliest Jain leader widely accepted by scholars as a historical figure, establishing Jainism's roots as a distinct pre-Buddhist Śramaṇa tradition. Historical analysis suggests his teachings formed the basis for the practices later consolidated by Mahavira. He was born and associated with the major ancient city of Kashi (Varanasi).
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History of Jainism
Jainism is an ancient Indian religion belonging to the Śramaṇa tradition. Jains trace their history through a lineage of twenty-four tirthankaras (ford-makers), revering Rishabhanatha as the first in the present time-cycle. While tradition considers the dharma eternal, scholarly consensus places its verifiable historical roots in the 9th–8th century BCE, with the last two tirthankaras, Parshvanatha (c. 9th-8th c. BCE) and Mahavira (c. 6th c. BCE), widely accepted as historical figures. Mahavira is viewed by scholars not as a founder, but as a reformer of the pre-existing community established by Parshvanatha.
Following Mahavira's nirvana (c. 527 BCE, the start of the Vira Nirvana Samvat era), Jainism spread across India. Early epigraphic evidence, like the Hathigumpha inscription, attests to royal patronage under figures like King Kharavela of Kalinga (c. 2nd-1st c. BCE). Traditional accounts, primarily from the 12th-century Parishishtaparvan, describe Chandragupta Maurya embracing Jainism , while Mauryan emperors like Ashoka and Samprati are mentioned in edicts and Jain texts respectively. Archaeological finds at Kankali Tila (Mathura) confirm a thriving community with temples, stupas, and a sophisticated artistic tradition under the Kushanas (c. 1st-3rd c. CE), while inscriptions and temples at Udayagiri Caves (Madhya Pradesh) and Deogarh (Uttar Pradesh) show continued prosperity under the Guptas (c. 4th-6th c. CE).
The Classical Age (c. 7th–13th c. CE) saw significant patronage, particularly in the Deccan under dynasties like the Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, and Western Gangas, leading to the creation of major literary works (Adi Purana) and monuments like the Gommateshwara statue at Shravanabelagola. In Western India, the Chaulukyas were notable patrons, supporting scholars like Hemachandra and ministers who built the Dilwara Temples. The gradual schism between the two main sects, Digambara and Śvētāmbara, likely began around the 1st century CE and was solidified by the 5th century CE, primarily over differences in ascetic practices (nudity) and scriptural authority.
From the 12th century onwards, Jainism faced challenges due to the rise of competing devotional movements like Lingayatism and persecution during Mughal Empire, leading to the destruction of some temples. However, the community showed resilience, adapting as mercantile classes and influencing rulers like Emperor Akbar, who, advised by the Śvetāmbara monk Hiravijaya, temporarily banned animal slaughter during Paryushana. The Modern Period saw interactions with colonial rule, academic recognition spurred by scholars like Hermann Jacobi, monastic revivals led by figures such as Acharya Shantisagar, and the emergence of reform movements.
While Jain tradition considers the dharma eternal, scholarly consensus traces its verifiable historical roots to the 9th–8th century BCE. Scholars consider the last two tirthankara (ford-makers), Parshvanatha and Mahavira (6th century BCE) as historical figures. The preceding 22 tirthankaras are generally regarded as legendary or mythological figures within historical analysis. Some scholars, including Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, proposed that Jainism's roots may predate the composition of the Vedas.
Some scholars hypothesize that Jain practices originated in the Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), reflecting pre-Indo-Aryan spirituality. This theory often points to IVC seals depicting figures in meditative postures resembling kayotsarga and the bull motif associated with Rishabhanatha, the first tirthankara. However, this connection remains speculative and lacks definitive scholarly consensus.[citation needed]
Jainism emerged as part of the Śramaṇa tradition, a diverse group of non-Vedic ascetic movements in ancient India that also included Buddhism and Ājīvika. These traditions rejected Vedic authority and emphasized personal ascetic effort for liberation.[citation needed] Within this context, Jain tradition posits a lineage of 24 Tirthankaras, believed to guide humanity across cosmic time cycles. While traditional accounts ascribe vast lifespans and superhuman attributes to them, figures like Rishabha are mentioned (though interpreted differently) in Vedic texts, and Neminatha (the 22nd) is traditionally linked as a cousin of Krishna.
Parshvanatha (c. 9th–8th century BCE), the 23rd tirthankara, is the earliest Jain leader widely accepted by scholars as a historical figure, establishing Jainism's roots as a distinct pre-Buddhist Śramaṇa tradition. Historical analysis suggests his teachings formed the basis for the practices later consolidated by Mahavira. He was born and associated with the major ancient city of Kashi (Varanasi).