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Key Information

Jonas Baes (born 1961 in Los Baños, Laguna) is a Filipino composer. He enrolled in the University of the Philippines[which?] College of Music in 1977 as a student of Ramon P. Santos, and encountered the musical compositions of José Maceda, attended several seminar-workshops of visiting lecturers, and did research on the music of the Iraya-Mangyan people of Mindoro, which became the inspiration for his compositions. From 1992 to 1994, he studied with Mathias Spahlinger in Freiburg, Germany. Baes is known for writing music utilizing "unorthodox" musical instruments like bean-pod rattles, leaves, iron-nail chimes, as well as various Asian instruments such as bamboo scrapers, bamboo flutes, and vocal music using Asian vocal techniques. His early works in the 1980s were influenced by Maceda in the use of large numbers of performers, while in the 1990s he experimented with various methods by which the audience becomes integral in the performance. At the beginning of the new century, Baes experiments with notions of structure-agency integration [after Anthony Giddens] and simulacrum [after Jean Baudrillard]. It is typical for social theory to influence the work of Baes who has made a mark on contemporary music and cultural politics in the Asian region. Baes is also active as an ethnomusicologist and writer.

Compositions

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Some of Jonas Baes' musical compositions include:

BANWA [imagined community, after Benedict Anderson] for four bamboo scrapers, "bamui" trail caller, "sarunai" oboe, "khaen" mouth organ, and about a hundred iron nail chimes distributed among the audience [1997/2001]

WALA [nothingness] for seven or hundreds of men's voices [1997/2001]

DALUY [flow] interval music for five animator-percussionists and about a hundred bird whistles distributed among the audience [1994]

IBO-IBON [birdwoman] for dancer wearing small bells, two large wind chimes passed around the audience, four animator-callers, and iron nail chimes played by the audience [1996]

SALAYSAY [narratives/ inspired by Jean Baudrillard] for solo voice, three percussionists, and pairs of pebbles distributed among the audience

PATANGIS-BUWAYA [and the crocodile weeps] for four sub-contrabass recorders or any blown instruments [2003]

PANTAWAG [music for calling people] for 15 bamboo scrapers, 15 palm leaves, and 20 muffled "forest" voices [1981]

BASBASAN [blessing] for 20 bean-pod rattles and 20 muffled men's voices [1983]

References

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Jonas Baes

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Jonas Baes (born 1961 in , ) is a Filipino , ethnomusicologist, and cultural activist renowned for his interdisciplinary works that integrate traditional Asian instruments, vocal techniques, and explorations of marginality in societies. Baes studied composition under at the , earning a in Composition in 1982, followed by graduate studies in there until 1985. He later pursued special studies in composition and music-politics with Mathias Spahlinger at the Staatliche Hochschule für Musik Freiburg in from 1992 to 1994, and completed a PhD in Philippine Studies at the in 2004. As a full professor of composition and theory at the University of the Philippines Diliman since 1999, Baes has served as a guest lecturer in Germany, Japan, Malaysia, and the United States, focusing his research on the sociology of music among indigenous groups such as the Iraya-Mangyan and Lumad peoples. He founded the Manila Composers Lab in 2009 and the Ripieno Ensemble PH in 2015 to promote contemporary Philippine music. His scholarly contributions include the book Maceda, Spahlinger and the Dialectics of a "New Music" Praxis in Southeast Asian Modernity (University of the Philippines Press, 2022) and articles on cultural politics and indigenous musical practices published in international journals. Baes's compositions, performed across , , and , often critique through aesthetic interpretations of philosophers like Heidegger, Sartre, and Bourdieu. Notable works include Patangis-Buwaya (2003), a global symbol of ; Awit ng Ibon (1980); Sigaw – Shout (1981); Wala (1997); and recent pieces such as sentimientos (2022) and manifesto...on the two-colored river (2024). His achievements encompass multiple UP Gawad awards for outstanding (2001–2003, with Hall of Fame induction in 2003), UP Artist Rank 2 status since 2013, and the CCP-LFC Composition Prize (1980).

Early Life and Education

Childhood in Los Baños

Jonas Baes was born in 1961 in , , a rural town known for its agricultural landscapes and proximity to the . Growing up in this environment, Baes was exposed to the sounds of rural life, including natural ambiences and local traditions that would later inform his ethnomusicological interests. His family had ties to cultural and activist circles; his older brother, Aloysius "Ochie" Baes, was a prominent student leader and founder of the Samahang Demokratiko ng Kabataan chapter at the Los Baños, later recognized as a martyr in the . As a child during the martial law era, Baes carried music sheets during family visits to the stockade where Ochie was imprisoned, containing his brother's protest compositions, such as a kundiman adapted from the works of Bonifacio Abdon—a traditional Filipino art song form rooted in folk traditions. This early involvement provided Baes with his initial encounters with Philippine folk music elements blended into activist expressions, sparking his interest in musical creation through self-taught familiarity with notation and composition basics before any formal training. These formative experiences in Los Baños, amid family activism and rural surroundings, laid the groundwork for Baes' lifelong engagement with music as a cultural and social force, leading naturally to his pursuit of higher studies.

Studies at the University of the Philippines

Jonas Baes enrolled at the University of the Philippines College of Music in 1977, majoring in composition under the guidance of Ramon P. Santos. His studies were also influenced by Jose Maceda, a pioneering figure in Philippine contemporary music, whose innovative approaches shaped the curriculum. This enrollment was motivated by his childhood musical interests developed in Los Baños, Laguna. Baes' coursework emphasized a blend of Philippine music traditions and Western compositional techniques, reflecting the College of Music's commitment to integrating local cultural elements with global practices. Under Santos and Maceda, he explored ethnomusicological aspects of indigenous Philippine instruments and rhythms alongside classical , , and from the Western canon. These studies culminated in his degree in composition in 1982. Following his undergraduate degree, Baes pursued graduate studies in at the under from 1982 to 1985, earning MM units. This period deepened his engagement with and Philippine musical traditions. During his time at UP, Baes became involved in campus performances, participating in ensembles that showcased praxis. This early exposure to collaborative and settings, often featuring unconventional instrumentation and improvisational elements inspired by Maceda's works, laid the groundwork for his future compositional experiments.

Postgraduate Training in Germany

Following his graduate studies at the , Jonas Baes pursued postgraduate training in composition at the Staatliche für Musik Freiburg in from 1992 to 1995. There, he studied under the mentorship of Mathias Spahlinger, a prominent figure in known for his politically engaged approaches. This period marked a significant expansion of Baes' compositional toolkit, building on the foundational ethnomusicological insights gained at UP. Baes' training emphasized dialectical methods in composition, drawing from Spahlinger's Hegelian-inspired framework of sublation, which involves synthesizing opposing musical elements to challenge traditional structures. Experimental techniques were central, as Spahlinger encouraged explorations that interrogated harmonic conventions and material organization, often through skeptical and open-ended processes. These methods included readings on music-politics, fostering a critical perspective on as a social and ideological practice. Through this exposure, Baes encountered European practices, such as those evident in Spahlinger's works like Gegen Unendlich (1995), which deconstruct infinity and dissonance to provoke listener reflection. He integrated these with Asian perspectives, adapting experimentation to incorporate Southeast Asian sonic traditions, thereby bridging cultural divides in his emerging theoretical framework. Additionally, Baes engaged in related research during short-term programs at the institution, which laid groundwork for his advanced academic pursuits.

Professional Career

Academic Roles at UP Diliman

Jonas Baes joined the faculty of the College of Music in Diliman in 1996, where he has taught courses in music analysis and composition. His appointment as a of composition in the Department of Composition and Theory marked the beginning of his long-term commitment to at the institution, with appointment as full in 1999, currently holding the rank of Professor 11 (as of 2024). Baes served as Chair of the Department of Composition and Theory starting at least as early as 2007, a role in which he oversaw departmental operations and the training of emerging musicians during a period of growing emphasis on experimental and culturally rooted practices in Philippine . Later, he took on administrative responsibilities as Associate Dean for from around 2020 to 2021, focusing on student welfare and program coordination within the college. His PhD completion in Philippine Studies in 2004 supported his research contributions and later leadership roles within the department. In his teaching role, Baes has mentored numerous students in contemporary Philippine composition, guiding them through advanced techniques that blend Western and local traditions. He has also extended his mentorship in , drawing on his expertise to supervise student research into indigenous musical forms and cultural contexts, fostering a generation of scholars who explore the intersections of music and society. Complementing his classroom efforts, Baes founded and directs the Manila Composers Lab since 2009, an initiative affiliated with UP Diliman that provides intensive workshops for young composers from the and , emphasizing innovative and culturally sensitive approaches to music creation. Baes has contributed to at the UP College of Music by integrating elements of indigenous Philippine music into composition and theory courses, promoting an educational framework that encourages cultural through musical . This approach has helped shape the department's programs to prioritize the study and adaptation of traditional sounds, such as those from marginalized communities, within contemporary compositional practice.

Composing and Activism

Jonas Baes has composed numerous interdisciplinary works that integrate with elements of , sound installation, and , often addressing socio-political themes. These pieces, which frequently incorporate traditional Asian instruments and vocal techniques, have been premiered and performed at international festivals and venues across , , , and . For instance, his composition Patangis-Buwaya (2003), scored for four wind instruments from any culture, symbolizes the struggles of and has been performed annually worldwide since its debut in , adapting to various global socio-political contexts. As a cultural activist, Baes has actively promoted the voices of marginalized communities through music-driven initiatives and collaborations, particularly with indigenous groups in the . His efforts include fieldwork and partnerships with the Iraya-Mangyan of and the Dumagat of Rizal, where he explores the of and cultural loss, using these engagements to highlight issues of marginality and appropriation in indigenous musical traditions. These activities extend beyond academia, fostering networks among cultural workers to support displaced communities, such as locating and aiding indigenous performers in refuges during times of crisis. Baes founded the Manila Composers Lab in 2009 as an international platform dedicated to annual workshops for emerging composers, with a focus on those from , inviting global experts and ensembles to facilitate cross-cultural exchanges. He also founded the Ensemble PH in 2015, serving as its to promote contemporary Philippine through ensemble performances. In 2019, marking the organization's 10th anniversary, he curated two concerts titled Crossroads—a linear program of works—and Progressions—an immersive installation—showcasing experimental compositions that engage with themes of cultural intersection and innovation. His academic role at the has provided a foundation for these activist pursuits, enabling broader outreach through institutional resources.

Musical Style and Influences

Impact of Mentors like Maceda and Spahlinger

Jonas Baes' compositional approach in the 1980s was profoundly shaped by his mentor , whose innovative use of large ensembles drew from Southeast Asian indigenous traditions to create immersive, collective sound experiences. Maceda's emphasis on mobilizing hundreds of performers with gongs, bamboo, and other non-Western instruments influenced Baes to explore similar scales in his early works, prioritizing communal participation over individualistic expression to evoke social and cultural resonance. This mentorship at the instilled in Baes a praxis where music served as a tool for community engagement, transforming performances into participatory events that blurred the lines between audience and artists. During his postgraduate studies in from 1992 to 1995, Baes encountered Mathias Spahlinger's rigorous dialectical approach to composition, which emphasized experimental structures that interrogated and deconstructed conventional musical forms through Hegelian principles of and synthesis. Spahlinger's focus on "sublation" (Aufhebung)—the of preserving, , and elevating musical elements—introduced Baes to a praxis that viewed composition as a critical dialogue with historical and political contexts, fostering open, non-hierarchical forms that challenged Western tonal dominance. This influence encouraged Baes to incorporate fluid, indeterminate elements in his theoretical and creative explorations, prioritizing over fixed outcomes to reflect modernity's contradictions. In his early theoretical writings, such as the 2021 article "Before Their Ears and Minds: Sublation in the Musical Praxis of and Mathias Spahlinger," Baes synthesized these mentors' ideas by applying Hegelian dialectics to analyze how their works transcend binary oppositions in musical material and perception, laying the groundwork for his own framework of "new music" praxis. This integration is further elaborated in his 2022 Maceda, Spahlinger and the Dialectics of a "New Music" Praxis in Southeast Asian Modernity, where Baes constructs an analytic model that merges Maceda's communal scale with Spahlinger's experimental critique, emphasizing sublation as a method for innovative composition attuned to postcolonial contexts. These writings mark Baes' foundational shift toward a theoretically informed practice that evolved to incorporate indigenous elements in his later oeuvre.

Incorporation of Indigenous and Cultural Elements

Jonas Baes' compositional style from the 1990s onward distinctly integrates elements of Philippine with contemporary global techniques, creating a hybrid aesthetic that emphasizes cultural specificity and . Building on influences from mentors like , Baes shifted toward incorporating traditional Asian instruments such as the , , and , alongside non-Philippine ones like the Lao khene, to evoke layered sonic landscapes reflective of Southeast Asian traditions. In his works, Baes employs indigenous vocal techniques, including chants, simulated birdcalls, and ritual improvisations drawn from groups like the Iraya-Mangyan of , to infuse compositions with a sense of communal and spiritual depth. For instance, pieces like Lisan (2007) utilize texts and vocalises from Iraya-Mangyan oral traditions to highlight themes of displacement and resilience. These elements are not mere ornamentation but serve to bridge local practices with experimental forms, fostering audience participation akin to indigenous rituals. Baes further explores the aesthetization of social theories in his , particularly addressing marginality among indigenous communities such as the Iraya-Mangyan, by transforming sociological concepts of loss and power dynamics into sonic narratives. Drawing from thinkers like Heidegger and Bourdieu, he aestheticizes issues of cultural marginalization, as seen in works that reflect the of amid environmental and political threats to rainforest-dwelling peoples. This approach marks a deliberate shift from large-scale, ensemble-based structures in his earlier career to more culturally appropriative methods, where Baes prioritizes the of indigenous motifs to critique globalization's impact on local identities. Through initiatives like the Ensemble PH, founded in 2015, he promotes a "local-modernity" in Philippine music that recontextualizes these elements for contemporary performance.

Compositions

Early Works from the 1980s

Jonas Baes' earliest notable composition, Awit ng Ibon (1980), is a setting of text by Baes for and , which premiered that year and earned him the Cultural Center of the Philippines-Levi Celerio Foundation (CCP-LFC) Composition Prize, marking his initial recognition in Philippine circles. The work's lyrical exploration of through bird song reflected Baes' emerging interest in vocal expression, receiving acclaim for its poetic integration of Filipino themes. Throughout the 1980s, Baes expanded his compositional palette with pieces that incorporated ethnic Philippine instruments and voices, often employing large ensembles to evoke communal and ritualistic sounds. Representative examples include Sigaw – Shout, or Internal Inaudible Cries of Injustice (1981) for 10 male voices, 4 gandingan gongs, and 2 agung gongs, which used vocalise to convey social unrest; Pantawag – Music for Calling People (1981) featuring tagutok sticks, palaspas fans, and muffled voices; and Kalipay – Celebration and (1982) for 100 trail-call voices alongside 20 batong buhay stones, 20 tagutok, and other percussion, drawing on mass performer formats to amplify cultural resonance. Later in the decade, works like Basbasan – To Bless (1983) for 20 male voices and 20 buray-dipay bamboo instruments, Yayeyunan – Melody (1987) for 5 female voices, 4 batiwtiw buzzers, and 16 tagutok, and Banal-Pasakit – Holy Sacrifice (1988) for mixed voices continued these explorations, premiering in academic and cultural venues within the and gaining attention for their innovative fusion of traditional elements with modern structures. These early compositions were shaped by Baes' studies at the , where he earned a BMus in composition in 1982 under mentors including , whose use of large-scale performances with indigenous sounds profoundly influenced Baes' approach to ensemble works.

Experimental Pieces from the 1990s and Beyond

In the and beyond, Jonas Baes shifted toward more experimental compositions that integrated global cultural elements, audience participation, and philosophical inquiries into sound and society, evolving from his earlier large-scale ensemble works to intimate, interactive soundscapes. These pieces often drew on indigenous Philippine traditions while embracing multicultural instrumentation and , reflecting Baes' commitment to praxis-oriented music that challenges listeners to engage actively. One of Baes' seminal works from this period is Daluy (1994), a five-movement composition dedicated to his daughter Patricia, born that year, which explores themes of flow and narrative through environmental soundscapes. Scored for five animator-percussionists using bamboo instruments like tongatong and balingbing, it incorporates about 100 bird whistles distributed to the audience, creating an immersive, collective sonic experience that frames social gatherings or concerts. The piece premiered as interval music during Baes' studies with Mathias Spahlinger and was later adapted for performances, such as the 2014 rendition with tamtams, gongs, saxophones, and iron-nail "peace chimes" played by the audience, concluding with a leader-chorus lullaby. Patangis-Buwaya (2003), meaning "...and the crocodile weeps...," exemplifies Baes' philosophy of praxis, where composition serves as a mutable "" for performers to realize in their own cultural languages, inspired by the struggles of the Iraya-Mangyan indigenous group against environmental threats. Written for four wind instruments from any culture—such as , , and in some versions—it encourages and spatialization, often involving 100–150 bamboo scrapers passed among the to evoke oral traditions and for marginalized communities. Since its premiere at Denzuin Temple in by the Malle Symen , the work has been performed annually in diverse settings, adapting to local contexts while maintaining its core socio-political resonance. Baes continued this experimental vein with Salaysay (2002), a narrative-driven piece for solo female voice, three percussionists (employing instruments like tagutok slit-drums, wind chimes, and tin cans), and audience members handling pairs of pebbles or stones to simulate . Drawing on fragmented texts from various books and incorporating simulated coughing by percussionists, it delves into themes of and human fragility, inspired by postmodern ideas akin to those of . Complementing this, Mailap na Kamusmusan (ca. 2021) addresses elusive childhood memories through introspective vocal and instrumental textures, with Baes providing the music for lyrics evoking and transience, performed in collaborative settings that blend contemporary Filipino sensibilities with subtle percussion and keyboard elements. Post-2000, Baes' pieces gained international traction, with Patangis-Buwaya adapted for ensembles in (2006), (2007), (2009), and (2013), showcasing its versatility across cultures. Daluy similarly saw global adaptations, including performances tied to environmental advocacy, highlighting Baes' influence in fostering cross-cultural musical dialogues. These works underscore his enduring impact on , prioritizing participatory and decolonial aesthetics over fixed notation.

Ethnomusicological Work

Research on Marginalized Communities

Jonas Baes has conducted extensive ethnographic fieldwork among the Iraya-Mangyan indigenous communities of , , focusing on their traditions as expressions of cultural resilience in marginalized settings. Beginning in the early , his research involved prolonged immersion in community life, including participation in rituals and daily activities, to document how music serves social and spiritual functions within these groups facing and displacement. Through participant-observation and direct engagement with performers, Baes explored the stylistic nuances of vocal practices, such as swaying rhythms that embody communal and healing processes. A key aspect of Baes' methodology includes comprehensive audio documentation, capturing over 30 hours of recordings from 1982 to 1987 to preserve the sonic heritage of Iraya-Mangyan amid threats from modernization and conflict. These efforts extended to studying the sociological role of among internal refugees, particularly during fieldwork in 2003, 2004, and 2006, where he conducted interviews and group discussions to assess how displacement disrupts musical transmission and bonds. His findings reveal as a vital tool for maintaining identity and coping with loss in low-intensity conflict zones influenced by geopolitical pressures. Baes has also researched the of among other indigenous groups, such as the peoples. Baes' investigations into modes of appropriation in Philippine further illuminate the power dynamics affecting marginalized groups, as detailed in his 2004 PhD dissertation. This work analyzes how indigenous communities strategically repurpose musical elements to assert cultural difference and negotiate inclusion in broader societal structures, transforming into a form of . By examining these processes, Baes highlights the agency of marginalized peoples in resisting erasure while engaging with national and global markets. In parallel, Baes emphasized community collaborations, partnering with indigenous organizations such as the Samahang Pantribu Ng Mga Ng to co-create documentation initiatives that empower participants and support . These partnerships underscore his sociological approach to , viewing it not only as an artistic practice but as a medium for and solidarity among the ' minority populations. His research outputs, including audio archives, have been shared through cultural foundations to aid refugee livelihoods and preserve endangered repertoires.

Key Publications and Theories

Jonas Baes has made significant contributions to music theory through scholarly publications that explore the intersections of Philippine musical praxis, cultural dynamics, and theoretical frameworks influenced by his mentors. His seminal book, Maceda, Spahlinger and the Dialectics of a "New Music" Praxis in Southeast Asian Modernity (2022), published by the University of the Philippines Press, examines the philosophical and compositional influences of José Maceda and Mathias Spahlinger on contemporary Philippine music. In this work, Baes applies Hegelian dialectics to analyze Maceda's use of indigenous instruments like gongs and bamboo in works such as Music for Gongs and Bamboo, contrasting it with Spahlinger's avant-garde approaches to create a framework for a "new music" attuned to Southeast Asian contexts. The book advances a theory of dialectical synthesis in postcolonial musical composition, emphasizing how these mentors' ideas foster innovative practices that integrate local traditions with global modernism. Baes' journal articles further develop theories on reflexivity and the role of everyday music in shaping Philippine . In his 2023 article "Virtual Implosion (2022): Reflexivity, the ‘Everyday’ and a Music of Philippine Reality," published in Pulse: Journal for Music and Interdisciplinary Practices, Baes theorizes music composition as a reflexive process that sublates everyday realities within late capitalist Philippine , using his own piece Virtual Implosion as a . on Hegel's dialectics, he argues that reflexivity in music production bridges personal and socio-political critique, allowing composers to address the tensions of and local authenticity. This piece builds on his earlier explorations of "everyday music" as a site for cultural , where ordinary sonic practices reflect broader Philippine realities of and resistance. Stemming from his PhD in Philippine Studies at the University of the Philippines Diliman, Baes' theories on music appropriation and cultural activism highlight how indigenous communities repurpose traditional music for empowerment. In the 2004 article "To the Memory of an Angel: Philippine Indigenous Music and the Politics of Cultural Appropriation," published in the Graduate Journal of Asia-Pacific Studies, Baes posits that indigenous peoples in the Philippines employ music—such as gong ensembles and vocal chants—as "cultural capital" to negotiate power imbalances in national and global arenas. He theorizes appropriation not merely as exploitation but as an activist strategy, where marginalized groups reify "cultural difference" through performance to gain recognition and resist assimilation. These ideas, informed briefly by his fieldwork among indigenous groups, underscore music's role in cultural activism as a tool for asserting identity amid colonial legacies and modernization pressures.

References

  1. https://www.composers21.com/compdocs/baesj.htm
  2. https://music.upd.edu.ph/Baes_Jonas.html
  3. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jonas-Baes
  4. https://www.goethe.de/resources/files/pdf83/pk11457309.pdf
  5. https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCNEdZ809yfRDZFPVACHqLnQ
  6. https://up.edu.ph/ups-tradition-of-protest-music/
  7. https://archivo1984.com/products/maceda-spahlinger-and-the-dialectics-of-a-new-music-praxis-in-southeast-asian-modernity
  8. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/354954426_Composition_as_Artistic_Device
  9. http://www.smccomposers.com/jonas-baes-on-patangis-buwaya-2003.html
  10. https://www.asiaresearchnews.com/html/article.php/aid/2000/cid/2/research/people/university_of_the_philippines_diliman/indigenous_music_in_the_philippines_and_the_politics_of_cultural_difference.html
  11. https://www.adobomagazine.com/philippine-news/jonas-baes-daluy-musika-at-kapaligiran-stars-in-project-bakawan-arts-festival-2015-launch/
  12. https://music.upd.edu.ph/assets/files/Music%2520Freshie%2520Orientation%25202021.pdf
  13. https://music.upd.edu.ph/assets/files/Freshman-Orientation-2020.pdf
  14. https://scispace.com/pdf/bamboo-and-music-composition-in-the-philippines-disquietudes-2xjwtrta1h.pdf
  15. https://issuu.com/dotdotdotmusic/docs/jonas_baes_artist_bio
  16. https://www.shimajournal.org/issues/v7n1/j.-Baes-Shima-v7n1-121-126.pdf
  17. https://jeffvonderschmidt.com/2019/04/10/the-10th-anniversary-of-the-manila-composers-lab-in-the-phillipines/
  18. https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/4650
  19. https://www.philippinebooks.com/products/maceda-spahlinger-and-the-dialectics-of-a-new-music-praxis-in-southeast-asian-modernity
  20. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265024391
  21. https://www.pgvis.com/seacompo/-daluy
  22. https://www.jstor.org/stable/851890
  23. https://www.shimajournal.org/issues/v1n1/i.-Baes-Shima-v1n1.pdf
  24. https://www.ds.mainlib.upd.edu.ph/Record/UP-99796217607612560
  25. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264256299_To_the_Memory_of_an_Angel_Philippine_Indigenous_Music_and_the_Politics_of_Cultural_Appropriation
  26. https://philpapers.org/rec/BAEMSA-2
  27. https://so18.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/pulsejournal/article/view/486
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