Hubbry Logo
KraflaKraflaMain
Open search
Krafla
Community hub
Krafla
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Krafla
Krafla
Krafla
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Krafla (Icelandic pronunciation: [ˈkʰrapla] ⓘ) is a volcanic caldera of about 10 km (6.2 mi) in diameter with a 90 km (56 mi) long fissure zone. It is located in the north of Iceland in the Mývatn region and is situated on the Iceland hotspot atop the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which forms the divergent boundary between the North American Plate and the Eurasian Plate.[1] Its highest peak reaches up to 818 m (2,684 ft) and it is 2 km (1.2 mi) in depth. There have been 29 reported eruptions in recorded history.

Key Information

Overview

[edit]
Iceland Mid-Atlantic Ridge map

Iceland sits astride the Mid-Atlantic Ridge; the western part of the island nation is part of the roughly westward-moving North American plate, while the eastern part of the island is part of the roughly eastward-moving Eurasian Plate. The north–south axis of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge splits Iceland in two, roughly north to south. Along this ridge many of Iceland's most active volcanoes are located; Krafla is one of these.[2]

Krafla includes the crater Víti [ˈviːtɪ], which contains a green lake. South of the Krafla area is Námafjall [ˈnauːmaˌfjatl̥], a mountain, at the foot of which is Hverir [ˈkʰvɛːrɪr̥], a geothermal area with boiling mudpools and steaming fumaroles.

History

[edit]
Lava flow during a rift eruption at Krafla, 1984

The Mývatn fires occurred between 1724 and 1729, when many of the fissure vents opened up. The lava fountains could be seen in the south of the island, and a lava flow destroyed three farms near the village of Reykjahlíð, although nobody was harmed.

Between 1975 and 1984, a series of volcanic events known as the Krafla fires took place within the Krafla caldera.[3] There were nine volcanic eruptions and fifteen uplift and subsidence events. During these events a large magma chamber was identified at depth by analysing the seismic activity. Some of the lava fountaining during these eruptions was caught on film by Maurice and Katia Krafft, and features in the 2022 film, Fire of Love.[4]

Since 1977 the Krafla area has been the source of the geothermal energy used by a 60 MWe power station. A survey undertaken in 2006 indicated very high temperatures at depths of between 3 and 5 kilometres (1.9 and 3.1 miles), and these favourable conditions led to the development of the first well from the Iceland Deep Drilling Project, IDDP-1, that found molten rhyolite magma 2.1 km (1.3 mi) deep beneath the surface in 2009.[5][6] The Krafla fires interrupted some of the geothermal drilling work in the area.

Krafla magma testbed

[edit]

Following on from the encounter with molten rock during the drilling of IDDP-1, the Krafla Magma Testbed (KMT[7]) concept has been developed, which envisages the creation of an 'international magma observatory' and further scientific drilling at Krafla in order to deliberately drill into the magma body.[8][9]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Krafla

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Krafla is a prominent volcanic system in Iceland's Northern Volcanic Zone, located in the northeastern part of the country near at coordinates 65.73°N, 16.78°W, featuring a central approximately 10 km in diameter and rising to an elevation of 818 m. The system extends about 100 km in length as a fissure swarm, 5–10 km wide, with abundant postglacial eruptive vents clustered in two main groups 2–5 km apart, including the notable explosion crater Víti. It is characterized by basaltic volcanism associated with the , a shallow reservoir at 3–7 km depth, and high-temperature geothermal activity that supports the Krafla Geothermal Power Station, generating up to 60 MW of electricity from a resource spanning roughly 40 km². The Krafla's eruptive history includes at least 29 recorded events since settlement, with major episodes such as the "Mývatn Fires" from 1724 to 1729, a prolonged eruption along an ~11 km line that produced ~0.45 km³ of basaltic lava covering ~30 km² over five years. The most recent significant activity was the 1975–1984 rifting episode, comprising nine eruptions from within a 19 km-long , which extended the by 8 m over six years and involved intrusion from depths of about 1.1 km. The last eruption occurred in September 1984, after which the system experienced intermittent inflation of its shallow at rates of 1–2 mm/day during episodic pulses lasting 2–3 months each (1985–1989), with an estimated accumulation of ~1 m³/s during those periods. As of 2023, InSAR and GNSS data indicate in the Krafla at rates of ~3–4 mm/yr, attributed to geothermal production and tectonic spreading, with ongoing monitoring by Icelandic authorities revealing no major surface deformation or unusual suggestive of imminent eruption. Today, Krafla remains an active site for geophysical research and production, including the planned Krafla Magma Testbed to drill into the starting in 2026, with the area's surreal landscape of recent lava fields, fault lines, and steaming vents attracting and , highlighting its role in understanding rift-zone and in .

Geography and Setting

Location and Regional Context

Krafla is situated at approximately 65°43′N 16°45′W in northeast , forming a key component of the Northern Volcanic Zone (NVZ), which represents the subaerial extension of the spreading center where the North American and Eurasian plates diverge. This positioning places Krafla within a highly active tectonic environment characterized by ongoing rifting processes that shape the island's volcanic landscape. The volcanic system is bordered by notable natural features, including Lake Mývatn approximately 24 km to the southwest, a shallow volcanic lake renowned for its . Krafla's associated fissure swarm extends about 100 km in a northeast-southwest direction, traversing diverse terrain from the vicinity of Lake Mývatn northward toward the coast. Adjacent to this swarm lies the Theistareykir volcanic system roughly 20 km to the north, contributing to the interconnected chain of rift-related volcanism in the region. Tectonically, Krafla occupies a rift zone where plate divergence occurs at a rate of 1-2 cm per year, driving extensional stresses that result in widespread faulting and the formation of sedimentary basins along the NVZ. This gradual separation influences the local by promoting fracture propagation and magma ascent, integrating Krafla into the broader dynamics of Iceland's plate boundary. In terms of human context, Krafla lies within the protected Mývatn-Laxá Nature Conservation Area, established to preserve the unique volcanic and ecological features of the surrounding landscape. The site is readily accessible via Iceland's Route 1 (the ), facilitating visits from nearby settlements like Reykjahlíð and integrating it into regional tourism and scientific monitoring efforts.

Physical Features

Krafla features a caldera measuring approximately 8 by 10 kilometers, elongated along a north-northeast to south-southwest axis due to its position within the Icelandic rift zone. The caldera floor lies below the surrounding rim in its deepest parts, though it has been largely filled by accumulations of volcanic material over time. Nested within this structure are prominent features such as the Víti crater, an explosive approximately 300 meters in diameter formed in 1724, and the Leirhnúkur lava field, a post-glacial expanse of basaltic flows. The landscape is characterized by fissure vents aligned along a swarm extending approximately 100 kilometers in length and 5 to 10 kilometers in width, which bisects the and facilitates surface expressions of volcanic activity. ridges, formed from subglacial eruptions, form irregular mountains and escarpments primarily along the margins, contributing to a rugged . Post-glacial lava flows dominate the surface, blanketing extensive areas within and around the with fresh basaltic layers. The highest elevation in the Krafla system reaches 818 meters at Krafla mountain, overlooking lowlands that include geothermal fields such as Leirbotnar, where alteration zones and steaming ground are evident. Surrounding lowlands transition into broader plains, with the caldera's edges marked by subtle scarps and grabens. Hydrological elements include abundant hot springs and fumaroles scattered across the geothermal fields, emitting steam and mineral-rich waters that alter local drainage patterns. Subsurface geothermal flows from Krafla contribute to the elevated temperatures and unique chemical composition of nearby , enriching it with silica and other dissolved minerals.

Geology

Formation and Structure

The Krafla volcanic system in northern features some of the oldest exposed rocks dating to approximately 300,000 years ago, marking the initial stages of its development within the neovolcanic zone. The central , approximately 10 km in diameter, formed around 100,000 years ago through collapse following a major rhyolitic eruption that produced a welded sheet roughly 110,000 years old. This event initiated the structural framework of the system, with most rocks accumulating between 100,000 and 200,000 years ago. Structurally, Krafla consists of a central bounded by ring faults associated with , alongside evidence of nested formed through repeated collapse episodes. The system extends laterally via the Krafla fissure swarm, a roughly 100-kilometer-long zone of en-echelon faults and volcanic fissures that accommodates extensional strain. These elements reflect ongoing tectonic adjustments in a basalt-dominated environment, where margins are defined by steeply dipping ring faults that facilitated during withdrawal. Krafla's evolution is shaped by its position as a propagating segment in the Northern Volcanic Zone (NVZ), where divergent plate motion drives northward extension at rates of about 1-2 cm per year. Dyke-induced rifting plays a central role, with intrusions propagating laterally from a shallow beneath the central , widening the rift and triggering fault reactivation along the fissure swarm. subsidence mechanics involve piston-like collapse along ring faults, often linked to deflation of the underlying during rifting events. Glacial interactions during the Weichselian period (approximately 115,000 to 11,700 years ago) profoundly influenced Krafla's structure, promoting formation through subglacial eruptions that built ridges and mounds of fragmented volcanic material. These deposits dominate the subsurface around key features like the Víti craters, reflecting interactions between ice loading and volcanic activity. Post-glacial , beginning around 10,000 years ago, facilitated shield building via effusive basaltic eruptions that draped and stabilized the landscape, transitioning from confined subglacial activity to subaerial construction.

Magmatic System

The magmatic system beneath Krafla features a shallow crustal reservoir, primarily located at depths of 1.5–3 km, as inferred from seismic imaging and drilling encounters. In 2009, the Deep Drilling Project well IDDP-1 unexpectedly intersected rhyolitic at approximately 2.1 km depth, confirming the presence of a melt body at this shallow level. While the 's estimated temperature reached around 900°C, associated geothermal fluids were measured at about 440°C near the intrusion site. Seismic reflections and velocity models further delineate this reservoir as a thin, low-velocity layer less than 1 km thick, with its top at roughly 2.5 km beneath the . Recent 3D seismic imaging (as of 2024) confirms low-velocity zones indicative of partial melt at 2–4 km depth. Krafla's magmas are predominantly basaltic with a tholeiitic affinity, reflecting derivation from in the , though occasional rhyolitic components arise through fractional crystallization and interaction with the crust. analyses, including elevated incompatible elements like Zr and Nb, indicate a primary mantle source influenced by the plume, with evidence of crustal contamination evident in low δ¹⁸O values (as low as -5‰) from assimilation of hydrothermally altered basaltic crust. The rhyolitic melts encountered in IDDP-1, for instance, exhibit Fe-rich compositions (FeO* > 12 wt%) and mineral assemblages including , alkali , and fayalitic , consistent with differentiation from tholeiitic parents under low water conditions. Recharge of the system occurs through periodic influxes of mantle-derived melts from the plume, which drive characteristic inflation-deflation cycles observed via geodetic monitoring. These influxes propagate laterally as dykes along the North Volcanic Zone, with rates of 1–2 mm/day uplift during inflationary phases signaling accumulation at ~1 m³/s. Such events, as seen in the 1975–1984 rifting episode, redistribute pressure and trigger subsequent deflation through dyke injections and eruptions. Geophysical surveys provide robust evidence for partial melt within the . Seismic reveals low-velocity zones (Vp reductions of 10–20%) at 2–4 km depth, interpreted as regions of elevated temperature and melt presence. Complementary magnetotelluric data image conductive anomalies (resistivities <10 Ωm) beneath the at 3–5 km, corresponding to partial melt fractions of 5–15% in a interconnected network, enhanced by saline fluids and high temperatures. These features align with the bimodal volcanic output, where basaltic recharges sustain the system while localized silicic differentiation occurs.

Volcanic Activity

Prehistoric Eruptions

The Krafla volcanic system in northern has been active throughout the epoch, with geological evidence indicating at least 23 confirmed eruptions over the past 10,000 years, primarily consisting of effusive basaltic events along fissures and central vents. These prehistoric eruptions were dominated by fissure-fed basaltic shields and lava flows, contributing to the system's cumulative output of approximately 10-20 km³ dense rock equivalent (DRE) during this period. Activity is divided into three main eruptive periods, with major effusive episodes occurring around 12,000 years ago, such as the central vent eruption that formed the Gjástykkisbunga lava shield, covering about 50 km² with an estimated volume of ~1 km³ DRE and shaping extensive post-glacial landscapes. One of the most significant prehistoric events predates the , with the largest known at Krafla occurring approximately 110,000 years ago; this rhyolitic event produced about 2 km³ of composite basalt-rhyolite airfall and , equivalent to a (VEI) of 6, and formed the boundaries of the current 8 by 10 km . During the last , subglacial volcanic activity generated extensive formations around the Krafla , consisting of fragmented basaltic and rhyolitic materials produced by interactions between and ice, which now underlie much of the region's subsurface geology. These hyaloclastites, formed under thick glacial cover, record repeated phreatomagmatic explosions and emplacement, influencing the structural foundation for later volcanism. Prehistoric eruptions at Krafla had notable paleoenvironmental impacts, particularly through the deposition of ash layers in regional sediments of the basin, where from basaltic and silicic events contributed to processes and altered patterns by enriching and periodically burying soils with nutrient-rich but materials. These ash deposits, identifiable in lacustrine cores and soil profiles, facilitated tephrochronology for environmental changes while demonstrating how volcanic fallout influenced development in this sensitive highland area. The transition from these undated prehistoric events to the historical record begins around AD 900, marking the onset of documented activity in the region.

Historical Eruptions

The earliest documented volcanic activity at Krafla following Icelandic settlement includes a possible rifting event in , characterized by seismic activity and ground deformation without a confirmed surface eruption. A significant series of eruptions, known as the Myvatnseldar or Myvatn Fires, occurred between 1724 and 1729, impacting local settlements through lava flows and fallout that disrupted agriculture and habitation in the region. This episode included five basaltic fissure eruptions, with the initial event on 17-18 May 1724 forming the Víti crater and expelling and , followed by additional outflows in 1727 and 1729 primarily within the , and events in 1746. The most recent and extensive historical activity was the Krafla Fires, a prolonged rifting episode from 1975 to 1984 comprising nine basaltic eruptions along a roughly 60 km segment of the fissure swarm, with a total erupted volume of approximately 0.25-0.3 km³. The sequence began on 20 December 1975 with a brief eruption near Leirhnjúkur that formed the initial Víti crater, followed by subsequent episodes in 1977, 1980, 1981, and culminating in 1984, each involving rapid propagation, lava fountains, and pāhoehoe flows. These events were associated with 1-2 m of uplift and northeastward migration of activity, driven by dyke intrusions from dual magmatic reservoirs. In total, Krafla has experienced at least 29 recorded volcanic events since settlement, including numerous effusive basaltic fissure eruptions with minimal explosive components. Immediate hazards from these events include advancing lava flows that can bury , sulfur dioxide (SO₂) gas emissions posing respiratory risks, and low-probability jökulhlaups from interactions with nearby minor ice caps, though the caldera's limited glaciation reduces flood potential compared to other Icelandic systems.

Modern Developments

Seismic Monitoring and Recent Deformation

Following the 1984 eruption, Krafla has experienced no further volcanic eruptions, but intermittent inflation of the caldera has been observed since early 1985, indicating ongoing magmatic processes beneath the surface. This inflation has been punctuated by periods of relative quiescence and deflation, with ongoing microseismicity reflecting persistent tectonic stress within the rift system. By 2025, cumulative ground uplift associated with renewed inflation since 2018 totals approximately 7-10 cm at the caldera center (estimated from rates of 10-14 mm/year), based on geodetic measurements. Seismic and deformation monitoring at Krafla is primarily conducted by the Icelandic Meteorological Office (IMO) through its nationwide SIL seismic network, which includes access to over 10 permanent stations in the northern volcanic zone for real-time earthquake detection and location. Complementary local networks operated by Iceland GeoSurvey (ÍSOR) and Landsvirkjun add 21 additional seismic stations focused on the Krafla geothermal area, enabling detailed analysis of microseismicity patterns. Deformation is tracked using continuous GPS (GNSS) stations and Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) data from satellites like Sentinel-1, which have successfully detected subtle dyke injections and pressure changes at depths of 2-3 km. These integrated systems provide high-resolution data on both seismic swarms and surface movements, supporting early warnings for potential unrest. A notable recent episode occurred between 2018 and 2020, when inflation rates accelerated to about 15 mm/year vertically in the central , accompanied by horizontal displacements of 3-6 mm/year; this phase was attributed to recharge or gas accumulation at a shallow source approximately 2.1-2.5 km deep, with an estimated volume increase of 2.6-3.8 × 10⁵ m³/year. In 2024-2025, seismic activity remained elevated with 3,526 located earthquakes (99% M_L <1.0) recorded in the Krafla area from November 2023 to October 2024, featuring clusters of microseismicity at 1-2 km depth that correlate with normal faulting and minor propagation along the fissure swarm; low-level activity (20-30 events/month) continued into late 2025. These events, dominated by double-couple mechanisms indicative of tectonic stress release, show no major swarms but highlight sustained strain accumulation without surface rupture. Hazard assessments for Krafla incorporate deformation and seismicity data into probabilistic models that forecast the likelihood of future rifting or eruption based on inflation trends and strain buildup. For instance, analyses of historical inflation cycles indicate that as ground uplift approaches threshold values (typically 20-30 cm per episode), the probability of dyke intrusion or eruption rises significantly. These models, calibrated using Krafla's post-1975 rifting data, emphasize the role of ongoing monitoring in refining eruption forecasts and mitigating risks to nearby infrastructure. Data from this surveillance also informs the Krafla Magma Testbed project, guiding safe drilling into potential magma bodies.

Geothermal Energy Projects

The Krafla Geothermal Station, located within the Krafla volcanic system in northeastern , began development in 1974 with exploratory drilling to assess the site's high-temperature potential. Construction of the powerhouse and initial wells commenced in the summer of 1975, coinciding with the onset of the Krafla Fires—a series of rifting events and eruptions from 1975 to 1984 that provided natural steam for early testing and influenced the project's progression. The first 30 MW became operational on February 21, 1978, marking a key milestone in 's geothermal expansion, with Landsvirkjun assuming full operations in 1986. A second 30 MW was added in 1999, bringing the total installed capacity to 60 MW. The plant utilizes a steam-dominated geothermal at depths of 1,000 to 2,500 meters, where high-enthalpy fluids reach temperatures of 300–400°C, enabling flash steam technology for . It operates with approximately 32 production and injection wells among a total of over 44 boreholes drilled across fields like Leirbotnar and Vítismó, employing since 1997 to minimize surface disturbance. Annual electricity output averages around 465 GWh, supporting sustainable resource use through reinjection of separated waters and , which began in the late and expanded in 2022 to maintain pressure and reduce environmental impacts such as surface . Economically, the station contributes roughly 2.3% to Iceland's total production of about 20,000 GWh annually, with Landsvirkjun directing the majority—over 80%—of its output to energy-intensive industries, including nearby aluminum smelting operations that rely on the low-cost, renewable power for processes. This integration has bolstered Iceland's export-oriented , enhancing and economic diversification since the plant's inception. Early operations faced significant challenges, including and scaling in wells due to acidic, magmatic fluids rich in gases like CO₂ and H₂S, which damaged and limited production in the and . These issues, exacerbated by the volatile conditions during the Krafla Fires, prompted advancements in materials and well design, leading to improved . Today, the plant achieves a thermal conversion of 10–15%, typical for flash systems, through ongoing maintenance and reinjection strategies that sustain long-term output.

References

  1. https://volcano.oregonstate.edu/krafla
  2. https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=373080
  3. https://gogn.lv.is/files/2015/2015-098.pdf
  4. https://www.landsvirkjun.com/powerstations/krafla
  5. https://nordvulk.hi.is/sites/nordvulk.hi.is/files/NVI_Reports_pdf/nvi_report_8401_low_text.pdf
  6. https://gogn.lv.is/files/2025/2025-006.pdf
  7. https://kmt.is/
  8. https://icelandicvolcanoes.is/?vnum=373080
  9. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191814124002840
  10. https://www.icelandtours.is/attractions/krafla-leirhnjukur/
  11. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232706940_The_Krafla_fissure_swarm_Iceland_and_its_formation_by_rifting_events
  12. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0377027320302304
  13. https://academic.oup.com/gji/article/196/3/1267/580797
  14. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2016JB013213
  15. https://www.iceland-dream.com/guide/north/myvatn
  16. https://rumbomundo.com/krafla-a-huge-volcano-near-myvatn/
  17. https://skemman.is/bitstream/1946/29097/1/uth-Msc2017.pdf
  18. https://gogn.lv.is/files/2015/2015-040.pdf
  19. https://academic.oup.com/gji/article/160/1/370/2022751
  20. https://gogn.lv.is/files/2007/2007-075.pdf
  21. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article-abstract/101/12/1608/182257/Formation-and-geometry-of-fractures-and-related
  22. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2012JB009140
  23. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8563691/
  24. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2001GC000282
  25. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2015JB012350
  26. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article/39/3/231/130503/Origin-of-a-rhyolite-that-intruded-a-geothermal
  27. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259127959_Iceland_Deep_Drilling_Project_The_first_well_IDDP-1_drilled_into_magma
  28. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024JB030425
  29. https://academic.oup.com/petrology/article/33/5/1105/1456159
  30. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article/50/7/796/612994/Oxygen-isotope-evidence-for-progressively
  31. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257418098_Composition_and_origin_of_rhyolite_melt_intersected_by_drilling_in_the_Krafla_geothermal_field_Iceland
  32. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0377027305002520
  33. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/earth-science/articles/10.3389/feart.2021.628967/full
  34. https://academic.oup.com/gji/article-abstract/220/1/541/5587733
  35. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/345387265_Imaging_the_magmatic_system_beneath_the_Krafla_geothermal_field_Iceland_A_new_3-D_electrical_resistivity_model_from_inversion_of_magnetotelluric_data
  36. https://www.volcanodiscovery.com/krafla-eruptions.html
  37. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342880498_Compaction_of_Hyaloclastite_from_the_Active_Geothermal_System_at_Krafla_Volcano_Iceland
  38. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308089816_Water_and_Sustainability_in_the_Lake_Myvatn_Region_of_Iceland_Historical_Perspectives_and_Current_Concerns
  39. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012821X24003935
  40. https://volcano.si.edu/showreport.cfm?doi=10.5479/si.GVP.SEAN198411-373080
  41. https://nordvulk.hi.is/sites/nordvulk.hi.is/files/NVI_Reports_pdf/nvi_report_7807_low_text.pdf
  42. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0377027325001325
  43. https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020EGUGA..2219915L/abstract
  44. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/355381449_Renewed_Inflation_of_Krafla_Caldera_Iceland_since_2018_Sensitivity_of_Ground_Deformation_to_lateral_variation_in_Earth_structure_and_architecture_of_the_magmatic_system_explored_with_the_Finite_Elemen
  45. https://gogn.lv.is/files/2017/2017-015.pdf
  46. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0377027323001063
  47. https://gogn.lv.is/files/2025/2025-008.pdf
  48. https://www.volcanodiscovery.com/krafla-earthquakes/archive/2025-sep.html
  49. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012821X17306088
  50. https://verkis.com/projects/energy/krafla-geothermal-power-plant/
  51. https://www.gem.wiki/Krafla_geothermal_power_plant
  52. https://www.iea.org/countries/iceland/electricity
  53. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0375650517301001
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.