Hubbry Logo
Lightning NetworkLightning NetworkMain
Open search
Lightning Network
Community hub
Lightning Network
logo
7 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Lightning Network
Lightning Network
Lightning Network
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

The Lightning Network (LN) is a payment protocol built on the bitcoin blockchain.[1] It is intended to enable fast transactions among participating nodes (independently run members of the network) and has been proposed as a solution to the bitcoin scalability problem.[2][3][4]

History

[edit]

Joseph Poon and Thaddeus Dryja published a Lightning Network white paper in February 2015.[5][6]

Lightning Labs launched the Lightning Network in 2018 with the goal of reducing the cost and time required for cryptocurrency transaction. Specifically, the bitcoin blockchain can only process around 7 transactions per second (compared to Visa Inc., which can process around 24,000 transactions per second). Despite initial enthusiasm for the Lightning Network, reports on social media of failed transactions, security vulnerabilities, and over-complication lead to a decline in interest.[7]

On January 19, 2019, pseudonymous Twitter user hodlonaut began a game-like promotional test of the Lightning Network by sending 100,000 satoshis (0.001 bitcoin) to a trusted recipient where each recipient added 10,000 satoshis ($0.34 at the time) to send to the next trusted recipient. The "lightning torch" payment reached notable personalities including former Twitter A.K.A X CEO Jack Dorsey, Litecoin Creator Charlie Lee, Lightning Labs CEO Elizabeth Stark, and Binance CEO "CZ" Changpeng Zhao, among others.[8][9]

Design

[edit]

Andreas Antonopoulos calls the Lightning Network a second layer routing network.[10] The payment channels allow participants to transfer money to each other without having to make all their transactions public on the blockchain.[11][12] This is secured by penalizing uncooperative participants. When opening a channel, participants must commit an amount on the blockchain (a funding transaction).[13] Time-based script extensions like CheckSequenceVerify and CheckLockTimeVerify make the penalties possible.

Transacting parties use the Lightning Network by opening a payment channel and transferring (committing) funds to the relevant layer-1 blockchain (e.g. bitcoin) under a smart contract. The parties then make any number of off-chain Lightning Network transactions that update the tentative distribution of the channel's funds, without broadcasting to the blockchain. Whenever the parties have finished their transaction session, they close the payment channel, and the smart contract distributes the committed funds according to the transaction record.[6]

Implementations

[edit]

Benefits

[edit]

According to bitcoin advocate Andreas Antonopoulos, the Lightning Network provides several advantages over on-chain transactions:

  • Granularity – According to Andreas Antonopoulos, some implementations of the Lightning Network allow for payments that are smaller than a satoshi, the smallest unit on the base layer of bitcoin.[10]
  • Privacy – Lightning network payments may be routed through many sequential channels where each node operator will be able to see payments across their channels, but they will not be able to see the source nor destination of those funds if they are non-adjacent.[10]
  • Speed – Settlement time for lightning network transactions is under a minute and can occur in milliseconds.[10] Confirmation time on the bitcoin blockchain, for comparison, occurs every ten minutes, on average.
  • Transaction throughput – There are no fundamental limits to the amount of payments per second that can occur under the protocol. The amount of transactions are only limited by the capacity and speed of each node.[10]

Limitations

[edit]

The Lightning Network (LN) operates through bidirectional payment channels between two nodes, forming smart contracts that facilitate off-chain transactions. If either party closes a channel, the final state is settled on the Bitcoin blockchain.[14] While this design enables faster and cheaper transactions, the necessity of on-chain transactions to open and close channels introduces scalability constraints.[15]

Routing

[edit]

To preserve privacy and security, the network employs an onion routing protocol, wherein each node in the path decrypts only enough information to determine the next hop, without knowledge of the payment's origin or final destination.[16]

Use cases

[edit]

Bitcoin was originally intended to be a peer-to-peer electronic cash system. A notable early example occurred in May 2010 when Laszlo Hanyecz paid 10,000 BTC for two pizzas[17]—an event now noted annually as Bitcoin Pizza Day.[relevant?] As Bitcoin's value and network congestion increased, this use was no longer practical.[citation needed]

The Lightning Network is intended to address this and to make peer-to-peer payments more practical.[citation needed]

Several cryptocurrency wallets offer support for the Lightning Network.[citation needed]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Lightning Network

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Lightning Network is a decentralized, layer-two protocol built atop the blockchain that facilitates instant, low-cost micropayments through off-chain payment channels, thereby addressing Bitcoin's scalability limitations without compromising its security or decentralization. Proposed in a 2016 whitepaper by developers Joseph Poon and Thaddeus Dryja, it employs Hashed Timelock Contracts (HTLCs) to enable trustless, routed transactions across a mesh network of bidirectional channels, where users can settle balances on the main blockchain only when channels open or close. This design supports millions to billions of transactions per second at minimal fees—often fractions of a cent—making it suitable for everyday commerce, streaming payments, and machine-to-machine interactions, while the Bitcoin blockchain serves as an arbiter for dispute resolution. Key features include atomic multi-hop routing for payments between non-directly connected parties, cross-chain atomic swaps using compatible hash functions, and enforcement via Bitcoin's scripting language to prevent fraud, such as double-spending. Since its conceptual inception, the network has evolved through open-source implementations like the Lightning Network Daemon (LND) and Core Lightning (formerly c-lightning), fostering widespread adoption among wallets, exchanges, and merchants as of early 2026.

Overview

Definition and Purpose

The Lightning Network is a decentralized network of bidirectional payment channels constructed atop the Bitcoin blockchain, leveraging smart contracts to facilitate instant, low-cost payments without requiring immediate on-chain confirmation for each transaction. It enables users to open payment channels between themselves, allowing for repeated off-chain transfers of bitcoin value that are secured by cryptographic commitments, ultimately settling any final balances on the Bitcoin base layer. Bitcoin's base layer faces inherent scalability limitations, processing fewer than 7 transactions per second due to its 1 MB block size constraint, which results in network congestion and elevated transaction fees during periods of high demand. For instance, fees can surge significantly when the mempool becomes backlogged, as seen in historical spikes where users paid premiums to prioritize their transactions amid limited block space. These constraints highlight the need for Layer 2 solutions like the Lightning Network, which aim to support global-scale usage without overburdening the underlying blockchain. The primary purpose of the Lightning Network is to resolve Bitcoin's scalability trilemma—balancing security, decentralization, and scalability—by permitting an effectively unlimited number of off-chain transactions while preserving the protocol's core properties. This is achieved through off-chain processing, where transactions occur privately between channel participants and only require blockchain interaction for channel funding, updates, or closure, thereby minimizing on-chain footprint and associated costs. Final settlement of net balances occurs on the Bitcoin blockchain upon channel closure, ensuring all activity remains anchored to the secure base layer without intermediaries.

Key Components

The Lightning Network consists of nodes, which are participants in the decentralized system that open, manage, and monitor payment channels to facilitate off-chain transactions. These nodes act as intermediaries, routing payments through multi-hop paths across the network without requiring direct connections between all parties. By maintaining channel balances and enforcing transaction rules via cryptographic commitments, nodes ensure secure value transfer among users. At the core of the architecture are payment channels, bidirectional links established between two nodes using on-chain funding transactions on the Bitcoin blockchain. These channels allow unlimited off-chain updates to balances, enabling rapid micropayments that settle net values only upon closure, thus reducing blockchain congestion. Channels represent committed Bitcoin funds locked in multisignature addresses, providing a foundation for trustless, peer-to-peer exchanges. The network forms a mesh-like topology of interconnected channels, creating a graph where payments can traverse multiple nodes to reach distant recipients, akin to packet routing in communication networks. This structure supports scalability by distributing transaction load off-chain while maintaining global connectivity through dynamic path formation. The topology evolves as nodes open or close channels, adapting to liquidity demands without central coordination. Settlement occurs on the Bitcoin blockchain, serving as the ultimate arbiter for channel openings, dispute resolutions, and closures. Initial funding and final balance transactions are broadcast to the blockchain, with intermediate updates handled off-chain to minimize fees and confirmation times. The Lightning Network relies on Bitcoin's scripting language to enable these smart contract-like functionalities for secure enforcement. To mitigate risks from offline nodes, watchtowers provide optional third-party monitoring services that detect fraudulent attempts to broadcast outdated channel states, enforcing penalties through justice transactions. These services enhance security for users unable to continuously watch the blockchain, operating on a fee-based model without compromising decentralization.

History

Proposal and Early Development

The origins of the Lightning Network trace back to early discussions within the Bitcoin community about addressing scalability limitations through off-chain mechanisms. In May 2013, developer Tier Nolan outlined foundational ideas for payment channels and atomic transfers between parties, proposing a protocol that allowed multiple transactions to be settled on-chain only when necessary, thereby reducing blockchain congestion. These concepts built on prior explorations of micropayments and built up trust models, influencing subsequent developments in off-chain scaling. The formal proposal for the Lightning Network emerged in a 2016 whitepaper titled "The Bitcoin Lightning Network: Scalable Off-Chain Instant Payments," authored by Joseph Poon and Thaddeus Dryja. This document articulated a layer-2 protocol for Bitcoin, enabling instant, low-cost payments via a network of bidirectional payment channels that settle periodically on the main blockchain. Key innovations included revocable sequence maturity contracts (RSMCs) to prevent cheating in channel updates and hashed timelock contracts (HTLCs) to facilitate secure, routed multi-hop payments without requiring trust between non-direct parties. The whitepaper emphasized how these mechanisms could theoretically handle millions of transactions per second off-chain while leveraging Bitcoin's security for finality. To advance the protocol from theory to implementation, Lightning Labs was established in 2016 by Elizabeth Stark and Olaoluwa Osuntokun, focusing on building open-source software for the Lightning Network. Osuntokun, who earned B.S. and M.S. degrees in computer science from the University of California, Santa Barbara, had been contributing to Bitcoin development since approximately 2013, including work on btcd, an alternative full-node implementation in Go. He became the lead maintainer of Lightning Labs' LND (Lightning Network Daemon), one of the primary open-source implementations of the protocol. Early efforts included collaborative development across implementations, such as Blockstream's c-lightning prototype. In October 2016, engineers Rusty Russell and Christian Decker at Blockstream achieved the first end-to-end Lightning transaction on Bitcoin's testnet, demonstrating multi-hop payments and invoice-based micropayments in a controlled environment. Over the following year, multiple testnets and prototypes were iterated upon by various teams, including Lightning Labs' initial lnd (Lightning Network Daemon) software, refining routing, channel management, and security features ahead of the 2018 mainnet activation.

Launch and Initial Growth

The Lightning Network launched on Bitcoin's mainnet in early 2018, with initial implementations including the Lightning Network Daemon (LND) from Lightning Labs and c-lightning from Blockstream. LND's first mainnet-compatible beta release, version 0.4, arrived in March 2018, enabling users to open payment channels and route transactions off-chain. Similarly, c-lightning entered production use on mainnet around the same period, powering early commercial applications like the Blockstream Store. These releases marked the transition from testnets to live deployment, though adoption began modestly with only a few dozen nodes and channels operational by mid-2018. Early growth faced significant hurdles, including software bugs and security vulnerabilities that exposed the network to denial-of-service (DoS) attacks. In 2018, researchers demonstrated how attackers could exploit channel mechanisms to lock funds or disrupt operations, prompting rapid patches from developers. Initial network capacity remained low, around 500 BTC by late 2018, limiting scalability and reflecting cautious uptake amid these technical risks. Bitcoin developers also warned of potential P2P-level DoS issues in the protocol's initial form, underscoring the need for iterative improvements. By 2019, the network began accelerating, with total capacity surpassing 1,000 BTC in March, driven by enhanced node software and growing developer confidence. Node counts expanded from hundreds to several thousand, supported by integrations like the Phoenix wallet from ACINQ, launched in December 2019 as a user-friendly, non-custodial mobile option that simplified channel management. The following year, Strike's mobile app debuted in January 2020, leveraging Lightning for low-cost remittances and expanding access in regions like the U.S. and later El Salvador. Into the early 2020s, adoption surged amid broader Bitcoin momentum, with capacity reaching over 3,000 BTC by late 2021 and node numbers climbing past 10,000. From 2022 to 2024, heightened global inflation and the January 2024 approval of spot Bitcoin ETFs in the U.S. fueled renewed interest in scalable Bitcoin solutions, pushing Lightning capacity beyond 5,000 BTC by mid-2023 and nodes to over 15,000. This period highlighted Lightning's role in enabling efficient, low-fee transactions during economic uncertainty and institutional inflows. As of November 2025, network capacity has stabilized around 4,800 BTC after peaking above 5,400 BTC in late 2023, with approximately 12,600 nodes, reflecting ongoing maturation and adjustments in liquidity distribution.

Technical Design

Payment Channels

Payment channels form the foundational building blocks of the Lightning Network, enabling two parties to conduct off-chain transactions while leveraging the Bitcoin blockchain for settlement and security. A payment channel is established between two nodes, allowing them to update balances rapidly without broadcasting every transaction to the blockchain, thereby reducing fees and increasing transaction throughput. These channels rely on cryptographic commitments and timelocks to ensure security, preventing either party from cheating by broadcasting outdated states. To open a payment channel, two parties collaboratively create and fund an on-chain transaction that locks a specific amount of bitcoin into a 2-of-2 multisignature address, requiring signatures from both parties to spend the funds. This funding transaction serves as the initial commitment, establishing the channel's total capacity, which represents the maximum amount available for payments in either direction. Once funded and confirmed on the blockchain, the parties exchange signed commitment transactions that reflect the initial balance distribution, using features like SIGHASH_NOINPUT to allow spending from the yet-to-be-confirmed funding output. This setup ensures that the channel begins with a verifiable on-chain anchor, tying off-chain activity back to the main Bitcoin ledger. Bidirectional payments within a channel are facilitated by iteratively updating the channel state off-chain through a series of signed commitment transactions, each representing the current balance split between the parties. To enable this, each commitment transaction incorporates relative timelocks, enforced via Bitcoin's CheckSequenceVerify opcode (introduced in BIP 112 and BIP 68), which delay the spendability of outputs for a specified number of blocks—typically around 1000 blocks—to allow the honest party time to respond to any misbehavior. These updates are not broadcast to the blockchain; instead, only the most recent commitment is considered valid, with prior ones revoked to maintain channel integrity. Channel closing can occur cooperatively or unilaterally, providing flexibility while upholding security. In a cooperative close, both parties mutually broadcast a settlement transaction that nets out the final balances directly to their respective on-chain addresses, minimizing fees and avoiding delays. For unilateral closure, a party broadcasts the latest commitment transaction, but the recipient's outputs are subject to the relative timelock, becoming spendable only after the delay period. If the broadcaster attempts to claim the delayed output prematurely, the other party can enforce a justice transaction—also known as a penalty or breach remedy transaction—to seize all funds in the channel, ensuring strong incentives against dishonesty. The capacity of a payment channel is strictly limited by the amount funded in the initial on-chain transaction, dictating the total liquidity available for transfers in both directions. Over time, repeated payments in one direction can imbalance the channel, reducing effective liquidity for the constrained side; for instance, if one party accumulates most of the funds off-chain, the other may struggle to make outgoing payments. To address this, rebalancing techniques such as submarine swaps allow users to atomically exchange on-chain bitcoin for off-chain liquidity (or vice versa) using hash-time-locked contracts (HTLCs), effectively moving funds between the blockchain and Lightning without closing and reopening channels. This process involves a third-party swap provider who facilitates the trade trustlessly, ensuring either both legs complete or neither does. Revocation mechanisms are central to channel security, employing per-commitment secret keys to invalidate old states and penalize cheating. Each commitment transaction includes a revocation basepoint from which a unique revocation key is derived, shared only after the next commitment is established. If a party broadcasts an outdated commitment, the honest counterparty can use the corresponding revocation key to create a justice transaction, spending the old outputs to themselves and claiming the entire channel balance as punishment. This revocable sequence maturity contract (RSMC) design, combined with timelocks, creates a game-theoretic equilibrium where honest behavior is rationally enforced, as any attempt to exploit an old state results in total loss of funds.

Routing Mechanisms

The Lightning Network enables multi-hop payments by routing transactions across a mesh of bidirectional payment channels, allowing users to send value without direct connections while maintaining atomicity and security. Payments are forwarded through intermediate nodes, each updating their channel states conditionally based on cryptographic commitments. This routing relies on source-based path selection, where the sender computes and encodes the entire route to preserve privacy and prevent intermediate nodes from learning the full path or payment details. Central to secure multi-hop transfers are Hashed Timelock Contracts (HTLCs), which function as cryptographic puzzles ensuring payments either complete atomically across all hops or fail entirely without loss. In an HTLC, the recipient generates a secret preimage rr and its hash h=Hash(r)h = \text{Hash}(r), sharing hh with the sender; the sender then routes a conditional payment locked to hh, redeemable only by revealing rr within a specified timelock period. This is enforced via Bitcoin Script with a conditional structure: \text{OP_IF} \\ \quad \text{OP_HASH160 } h \text{OP_EQUALVERIFY} \\ \quad \text{<recipient_pubkey> OP_CHECKSIG} \\ \text{OP_ELSE} \\ \quad \text{<timelock> OP_CHECKSEQUENCEVERIFY OP_DROP} \\ \quad \text{<sender_pubkey> OP_CHECKSIG} \\ \text{OP_ENDIF} Each intermediate node creates an HTLC in its outgoing channel mirroring the incoming one, using decrementing timelocks (e.g., starting at 144 blocks and reducing by 40 per hop) to allow sequential revelation of rr backward along the path upon success. This setup prevents fractional claims or theft, as nodes cannot claim funds without rr from downstream, and upstream nodes can reclaim via timelock if failures occur. Path finding in the Lightning Network involves algorithms that discover viable routes balancing low fees, sufficient liquidity, and path length, often using depth-first search (DFS) variants to explore the channel graph. The sender queries network topology—gossip from BOLT #7 announcements of channels and capacities—and computes paths prioritizing high-capacity edges to avoid bottlenecks, while onion routing encapsulates payment instructions in layered payloads. In onion routing (BOLT #4), the sender constructs an "onion" using the Sphinx construction, where each layer reveals only the next hop's details (amount, fees, timelock) via shared secrets derived from the path; intermediate nodes peel one layer, forward the packet blindly, and cannot alter or observe beyond their hop, enhancing privacy against eavesdropping. Probabilistic success arises from dynamic liquidity, with senders probing multiple paths if initial attempts fail. Forwarding fees incentivize nodes to relay payments, structured as base fees plus proportional rates per hop, deducted from the payment amount before forwarding. Specified in onion payloads, fees compensate for opportunity costs and risks, with intermediate nodes splitting total fees (e.g., sender pays 1000 satoshis across three hops, each taking 200-300 based on policy). Fees can be zero or negative for subsidized paths, but success remains probabilistic due to potential liquidity shortfalls, where nodes reject HTLCs if outgoing capacity is insufficient. Liquidity management addresses channel imbalances, where funds concentrate on one side after directional payments, hindering further routing. Probe payments—low-value test HTLCs—help estimate remote balances without full revelation, though vulnerable to balance-probing attacks via binary search on failure messages. Solutions include conceptual splicing, which adjusts channel capacity off-chain by creating a new funding transaction while keeping the channel open, redistributing liquidity without on-chain closure costs. Nodes may also rebalance via circular payments or JIT (just-in-time) routing to preempt imbalances. Failure handling ensures robustness through timelock expirations and claim mechanisms. If a node fails to forward or the recipient does not reveal rr, upstream nodes propagate failure messages (update_fail_htlc in BOLT #2), allowing each to reclaim locked funds after their respective timelock expires by broadcasting a refund transaction. For malicious non-cooperation, justice transactions enable penalty claims of the entire channel balance if detected on-chain. Rerouting to alternate paths or netting failed payments mitigates disruptions, with overall network resilience improved by redundant topology.

Implementations

Core Software Implementations

The Lightning Network relies on four primary open-source software implementations that serve as full nodes for managing payment channels, routing payments via hashed timelock contracts (HTLCs), and ensuring protocol compliance. These implementations adhere to the Basis of Lightning Technology (BOLT) specifications, a set of interoperable standards developed collaboratively to define the network's core protocols, including channel establishment, payment routing, and onion messaging for privacy. The BOLT framework enables seamless interaction among different implementations, fostering a unified network ecosystem. The Lightning Network Daemon (LND), developed by Lightning Labs and led by Olaoluwa Osuntokun (known as "Roasbeef"), who holds a B.S. and M.S. in Computer Science from the University of California, Santa Barbara and has been a prominent Bitcoin developer since the mid-2010s with contributions to projects like btcd, a full-node implementation of Bitcoin in Go, is a Go-based implementation designed as a complete Lightning node with pluggable back-end services for blockchain synchronization. It supports lightweight syncing via the Neutrino protocol, allowing nodes to operate without a full Bitcoin blockchain download, and includes built-in features for channel management and pathfinding. LND emphasizes developer-friendly APIs and has integrated support for Bitcoin's Taproot upgrade, enabling enhanced privacy through Schnorr signatures and scriptless scripts in channel operations since version 0.14.0 in 2021. Core Lightning, formerly known as c-lightning and maintained by Blockstream, is a C-based implementation optimized for high performance and modularity. Its architecture features a plugin system that allows extensibility through dynamically loaded modules, enabling custom functionality without modifying the core codebase, and it prioritizes strict adherence to BOLT standards for reliability in enterprise environments. Core Lightning supports experimental features like dual-funded channels and has incorporated Taproot compatibility in updates around 2023, improving efficiency in multi-party transactions. Eclair, developed by ACINQ, is a Scala-based implementation running on the Java Virtual Machine (JVM), tightly integrated with the Bitcoin-S full node for seamless blockchain interaction. It focuses on robustness for mobile and enterprise applications, with an emphasis on secure channel splicing and automated liquidity management, while fully implementing BOLT specifications for cross-implementation compatibility. Eclair has supported key protocol advancements, including BOLT 11 for standardized invoice generation since 2019, which encodes payment requests with human-readable details and cryptographic hashes to facilitate secure, off-chain transactions. Electrum, developed and maintained by the Electrum open-source community, is a Python-based Lightning Network implementation fully integrated into the Electrum Bitcoin wallet rather than running as a separate daemon. Designed primarily for end-user wallets (desktop, Android, and limited iOS via third-party builds), it prioritizes simplicity, low resource usage, and mobile compatibility, featuring native support for submarine swaps, trampoline routing, private channels, atomic multi-path payments (AMP), and automatic channel rebalancing. By relying on the existing Electrum server network for blockchain data and gossip, it eliminates the need for a full Bitcoin node or Neutrino-style sync, making it the lightest-weight of the major implementations in terms of disk, bandwidth, and CPU requirements while remaining fully BOLT-compliant and interoperable. Electrum introduced production-ready Lightning support in version 4.0.0 (July 2020) and added channel splicing and offers+receive in 2022. Key milestones in the evolution of these implementations include the adoption of BOLT 11 in 2019, which standardized invoice protocols across nodes to simplify payment initiation by embedding amounts, descriptions, and expiration times in a bech32-encoded format. Major implementations integrated Taproot support at different times: LND in 2021, Core Lightning in 2023, and Eclair with initial implementation in 2025, leveraging its aggregation capabilities to reduce on-chain footprint and enhance channel privacy without altering the core BOLT-defined routing logic. In 2025, new routing algorithms were adopted by LND, Core Lightning, and Eclair to improve payment efficiency and success rates. These updates have maintained interoperability while addressing scalability in diverse deployment scenarios.

Supporting Tools and Wallets

The Lightning Network ecosystem includes a variety of supporting tools and wallets that facilitate user interaction, ranging from self-managed non-custodial options to simplified custodial services. These tools build upon core implementations like LND to provide accessible interfaces for sending, receiving, and managing Lightning payments. Non-custodial wallets emphasize user control over private keys and funds, often incorporating automated features to simplify channel management. Phoenix, developed by ACINQ, is a mobile-first Bitcoin wallet that natively supports Lightning Network transactions, automatically handling channel creation, liquidity, and splicing for seamless on-chain deposits and off-chain payments. Breez offers a self-custodial mobile app functioning as a full Lightning node, with built-in autopilot-like automation for channel provisioning and liquidity leasing to eliminate manual setup, enabling instant payments without upfront channel management. Custodial services prioritize ease of use by managing channels and keys on behalf of users, though this involves trusting the provider. Wallet of Satoshi provides a simple custodial Lightning wallet accessible via email recovery, supporting instant Bitcoin sends and receives with no incoming fees in custodial mode. Strike integrates Lightning for global remittances, allowing users to send fiat-equivalent value converted via Bitcoin over the network, with direct banking linkages for funding and withdrawals in supported regions. Development tools enable developers to integrate Lightning functionality into custom applications. The Lightning Development Kit (LDK) is a modular SDK based on Rust-Lightning, allowing builders to create tailored nodes and payment apps with flexible runtime support for channel management and routing. LND exposes gRPC APIs for programmatic control, enabling external applications to interact with the daemon for tasks like invoice generation, payment routing, and channel monitoring. Bridges and swaps services support liquidity movement between on-chain Bitcoin and Lightning channels. Boltz operates as a non-custodial atomic swap platform, facilitating trustless exchanges for on-ramping funds from Bitcoin mainnet to Lightning and off-ramping in reverse, leveraging Layer 2 technologies for speed and privacy. Hardware wallet integrations enhance security for Lightning operations by enabling offline signing of channel-related transactions. Both Trezor and Ledger devices support Lightning channel funding, updates, and closures through compatible software like Electrum or third-party wallets, with this functionality maturing post-2020 via PSBT standards for secure key management.

Advantages and Limitations

Benefits

The Lightning Network addresses Bitcoin's scalability limitations by enabling off-chain transactions through payment channels, potentially supporting millions of transactions per second compared to Bitcoin's on-chain capacity of approximately 7 transactions per second. This off-chain approach allows the network to handle high volumes without burdening the main blockchain, facilitating broader adoption for everyday payments. Transactions on the Lightning Network achieve near-instant confirmations, typically within seconds, in contrast to on-chain Bitcoin transactions that require 10 to 60 minutes for confirmation depending on network conditions. Additionally, fees are significantly lower, often under $0.01 per transaction, versus variable on-chain fees that can exceed several dollars during peak times. These attributes make the network suitable for frequent, low-value exchanges. Privacy is enhanced because off-chain transactions are not broadcast to the entire Bitcoin network until channels are closed, reducing the visibility of transaction details on the public ledger and minimizing blockchain data exposure. This design limits the information available to external observers, providing a layer of confidentiality not present in standard on-chain operations. The network supports microtransactions as small as fractions of a cent, which become feasible due to negligible fees, enabling applications like content streaming or machine-to-machine payments where on-chain costs would otherwise dominate. Such granularity opens possibilities for innovative economic models previously impractical on Bitcoin. By operating on a peer-to-peer basis without relying on a central authority, the Lightning Network preserves Bitcoin's core principle of decentralization, allowing users to maintain control over their funds through direct channel management. This structure ensures that scalability gains do not compromise the distributed nature of the underlying protocol.

Challenges

The Lightning Network faces significant liquidity constraints that hinder its efficiency for payments. Channels require balanced liquidity on both sides to facilitate bidirectional transactions, as an imbalance—such as insufficient inbound capacity—prevents users from receiving payments even if outbound capacity is available. This leads to frequent payment failures, though success rates often exceed 99% with proper configurations and can drop below 90% for larger transactions requiring multi-hop routing due to poorly distributed liquidity. Centralization risks have emerged due to the network's topology favoring a hub-and-spoke structure, where a small number of large nodes dominate routing and control the majority of capacity. Analysis reveals that the top 5% of nodes handle most transactions, with the Gini coefficient for capacity distribution increasing from 0.85 to 0.97 over the eight years to 2025, amplifying vulnerabilities to censorship, privacy erosion, and monopolistic fee practices by these hubs. Security concerns stem from the requirement for nodes to remain online to monitor and respond to potential fraud, as offline users risk fund loss during attacks like zombie attacks, where unresponsive peers lock funds indefinitely. Griefing attacks, such as congestion exploits where malicious parties open excessive HTLCs to block channels, further strain resources without immediate recourse. Watchtowers mitigate some risks by monitoring for revoked states, but they are ineffective against certain timing-based exploits like payout races or mass double-spends during high mempool congestion, where penalty transactions may fail to confirm within the required delay period of around 539 blocks. Post-Taproot, improvements like replace-by-revocation enhance penalty efficiency by allowing revocation of old commitments, though limitations persist in high-fee environments, as delayed confirmations can still enable theft of significant funds; simulations indicate coalitions of 30 nodes could steal over 750 BTC without optimized watchtower deployment. Ongoing enhancements, including better watchtower services, continue to address these risks as of 2025. User experience is complicated by the intricacies of channel management, particularly for mobile users who must handle liquidity allocation, rebalancing, and state updates manually or via automated tools that often require on-chain confirmations taking 30–60 minutes. Backup risks exacerbate this, as non-custodial mobile implementations demand frequent, asynchronous state syncing to cloud services, potentially leading to data loss or irrecoverable funds if a device is lost before synchronization completes. Regulatory challenges persist regarding the classification of off-chain assets and channels under money transmission rules, as well as compliance with cross-border data privacy laws, posing barriers to institutional adoption in some jurisdictions despite increasing regulatory clarity aiding broader integration as of 2025.

Adoption and Use Cases

Growth and Metrics

The Lightning Network has demonstrated robust growth in adoption metrics, with total network capacity (including private channels) reaching an all-time high of 5,637 BTC in December 2025 and remaining stable at approximately 5,600–5,637 BTC as of early February 2026, equivalent to around $490 million USD based on late 2025 Bitcoin prices. This marked a significant rebound from mid-2025 lows of around 4,200 BTC, indicating growing institutional adoption and improved liquidity management rather than declining usage. Public channel capacity, as displayed on trackers like 1ML, remains lower at approximately 2,673 BTC due to the substantial presence of unannounced private channels. A notable demonstration of the network's scalability for institutional use was the record $1 million Bitcoin transaction executed by Secure Digital Markets to Kraken on January 28, 2026. This payment, completed in under a second using enterprise infrastructure, stands as the largest publicly reported Lightning transaction to date and highlights the network's suitability for high-value transfers. Node and channel counts have also expanded, supporting increased connectivity and routing efficiency. By November 2025, the network hosts more than 12,600 nodes and over 43,800 active channels, up from roughly 11,000 nodes and 40,000 channels in early 2024. This growth underscores the network's maturation, with average channels per node rising to enhance path reliability for payments. Transaction volumes highlight the network's practical scale, with over 100 million payments processed in the first quarter of 2025 alone, marking a 28% increase from the prior quarter. Annual routed value has climbed into the billions of dollars, driven by a 266% year-over-year surge in public volume, while daily transaction counts exceeded 10,000 by late 2024 and continued to rise amid broader merchant uptake. In 2025, enterprise integrations have accelerated adoption, including Shopify's partnerships with providers like OpenNode and Strike to enable seamless Lightning payments for its merchant base. Bitrefill has expanded its Lightning infrastructure through tools like the Thor API, facilitating instant channel openings and broader e-commerce support for gift cards and refills. These developments have contributed to optimized routing algorithms that achieve up to 50% fee reductions for high-volume users, alongside even lower costs—sometimes approaching 0%—for well-connected participants. Stablecoin support has further boosted the network's utility, with Tether launching USDT on Lightning in January 2025 via Taproot Assets, enabling fast, low-cost transfers of the stablecoin directly on Bitcoin's layer-2. Similarly, USDC integration advanced through pilots like Speed Wallet's rollout in May 2025, allowing swaps and payments between Bitcoin and USDC on Lightning channels. These enhancements position Lightning as a scalable rail for stablecoin transactions, processing volumes that rival traditional systems.
MetricValue (early 2026)Historical Context (2023 Baseline)
Total Capacity5,600–5,637 BTC~5,400 BTC (late 2023)
Nodes12,633 (Nov 2025)~10,000 (early 2023)
Channels43,807 (Nov 2025)~35,000 (early 2023)
Q1 2025 Transactions100 millionN/A (28% YoY growth from 2024)

Practical Applications

The Lightning Network has enabled micropayments for content streaming, allowing creators to receive small, instantaneous payments from consumers without intermediaries. For instance, podcast platforms utilize Lightning to stream satoshis—fractions of a bitcoin—directly to hosts as listeners consume episodes, fostering a pay-per-use model that replaces traditional advertising revenue. Sphinx Chat exemplifies this application, integrating Lightning for encrypted messaging and content monetization, where users pay tiny amounts for access to premium audio or video streams in real time. In gaming, Lightning facilitates in-game purchases through microtransactions, enabling players to buy items, upgrades, or virtual goods with near-instant settlements and minimal fees. Platforms like ZBD have integrated Lightning into mobile games such as SaruTobi on iOS, allowing seamless bitcoin payments for in-app features under regulatory frameworks. This approach enhances user experience by avoiding delays associated with on-chain transactions, promoting broader adoption in the gaming sector. Remittances represent a significant practical use of the Lightning Network, particularly for cross-border transfers in regions with high migration flows. In El Salvador, following the 2021 adoption of bitcoin as legal tender, the Strike app leverages Lightning to enable low-cost dollar-to-bitcoin conversions and instant remittances from the United States, reducing fees compared to traditional services like Western Union. By 2025, Strike's infrastructure continues to support efficient, low-fee transfers, empowering unbanked populations and stimulating local economies through accessible financial tools. Merchant adoption of Lightning has expanded through point-of-sale (POS) integrations and e-commerce plugins, allowing businesses to accept bitcoin payments with speed and efficiency. Starbucks partnered with Bakkt in 2022 to enable customers to reload their app balances using bitcoin via Lightning, facilitating everyday retail transactions at thousands of locations. Similarly, OpenNode provides plugins for platforms like Shopify and BigCommerce, enabling over 500,000 merchants to process Lightning payments for online sales, thereby broadening bitcoin's utility in commerce. In decentralized finance (DeFi) and non-fungible tokens (NFTs), Lightning supports atomic swaps for trading Bitcoin Ordinals—inscribed digital assets on the blockchain—enhancing liquidity and interoperability. Protocols built on Lightning enable seamless exchanges of Ordinals without centralized custodians, integrating layer-1 Bitcoin assets with off-chain speed for 2023 and beyond. This has spurred innovation in Bitcoin-native DeFi, allowing users to trade inscriptions and related NFTs with reduced friction. The Lightning Network contributes to social impact through donations and tipping on decentralized platforms, promoting direct value transfer in online communities. The Nostr protocol, a relay-based social network, integrates Lightning "zaps"—instant micropayments—for tipping creators and supporting causes, with clients like Damus processing millions of such transactions in 2024. By 2025, this model has grown to facilitate charitable donations and content rewards, empowering users in censorship-resistant environments and fostering economic inclusion.

Future Developments

Ongoing Enhancements

The Lightning Network continues to evolve through targeted protocol upgrades aimed at enhancing usability, liquidity management, and scalability. One key advancement is the splicing protocol, which enables users to adjust the capacity of existing payment channels without closing and reopening them, thereby reducing on-chain transaction fees and downtime. This feature allows for the addition or removal of funds directly within an active channel via a splicing transaction that modifies the channel's funding output while preserving its state. Implementations such as Core Lightning integrated splicing in 2023, enabling dynamic liquidity rebalancing, while Eclair added support in its v0.11.0 release in late 2024, further improving cross-implementation compatibility. By 2025, subsequent updates in Core Lightning refined splicing interoperability with nodes like Eclair, facilitating seamless channel resizing during ongoing payments. Taproot integration represents another significant enhancement, leveraging Bitcoin's 2021 upgrade to incorporate Schnorr signatures into Lightning channel commitments for improved privacy and efficiency. Schnorr signatures aggregate multiple signatures into one, reducing transaction sizes and making channel openings and closings indistinguishable from regular Bitcoin transactions on the blockchain. This mitigates privacy leaks associated with legacy ECDSA-based commitments and lowers overall costs. Lightning Network Daemon (LND) introduced Simple Taproot Channels in its v0.17 beta release in October 2023, enabling Schnorr-based channel operations, with full mainnet rollout achieved across major implementations by 2024. Subsequent developments, such as Taproot Assets v0.4 in 2024 and v0.6 in June 2025, extended these benefits to multi-asset transfers including stablecoins, enhancing the protocol's versatility while maintaining Bitcoin's security model. In January 2025, Tether launched USDT on the Lightning Network using Taproot Assets, enabling instant stablecoin payments. Trampoline routing addresses challenges in multi-hop payments for resource-constrained light clients by delegating pathfinding to specialized intermediate nodes, thereby reducing the computational and bandwidth overhead of onion routing. In this model, a trampoline node computes the remaining path to the recipient and forwards the payment in a single aggregated update, simplifying operations for mobile wallets and low-connectivity users. Adoption accelerated in 2025, with Lightning Development Kit (LDK) v0.1.2 adding support for handling and receiving trampoline payments in April 2025, and Eclair implementing optional payment secrets for single-part trampolines to streamline compatibility. These updates enable broader participation in the network without requiring full topology knowledge from every node. Dual-funding protocols facilitate collaborative channel openings where both parties contribute funds simultaneously, promoting balanced liquidity distribution from inception and reducing the need for one-sided funding transactions. This approach uses a version 2 channel establishment handshake to negotiate contributions, allowing immediate bidirectional capacity and enabling use cases like decentralized liquidity marketplaces. Experimental support appeared in LND around 2024, while Core Lightning fully implemented dual-funding in its v24.11 release in December 2024, including mainnet recovery mechanisms to enhance reliability. By mid-2025, LDK advanced its dual-funding architecture, further standardizing the feature across implementations to mitigate liquidity imbalances. Standardization efforts for Atomic Multi-path Payments (AMP) continue through updates to the Basis of Lightning Technology (BOLT) specifications, enabling payments to be split across multiple paths atomically—either all shards succeed or none do—using a shared preimage and XOR-based secret derivation. This improves success rates for larger payments by avoiding single-path failures and supports features like static invoices for recurring transactions. AMP, introduced in LND v0.13 in 2021, relies on Type-Length-Value (TLV) onion messages standardized in BOLT 4, with ongoing refinements in 2024-2025 ensuring interoperability, such as enhanced shard handling in LND v0.19 released in June 2025. These BOLT updates prioritize privacy by allowing spontaneous payments without invoices, fostering adoption in subscription and donation services. In 2025, enterprise adoption has driven further integrations, with businesses reporting up to 50% fee reductions and increased use for micropayments.

Potential Risks and Research

The Lightning Network faces several potential security risks stemming from its off-chain architecture, which relies on payment channels and routing through untrusted intermediaries. One notable vulnerability is the wormhole attack, where an adversary controlling a small fraction of nodes (as few as 2%) can extract sensitive payment information by exploiting routing paths. Similarly, probing attacks enhanced by jamming can reveal full channel balances, compromising user anonymity and privacy. Liquidity constraints exacerbate these issues, as limited channel capacities often lead to payment failures, with scalability limitations causing route unavailability during high congestion. As of August 2025, network capacity has declined approximately 20% from late 2023 levels to around 4,200 BTC, though this reflects improved efficiency rather than reduced activity. Topological vulnerabilities further heighten risks, particularly against targeted attacks on high-degree nodes, which could fragment the network and disrupt transaction routing. While the network demonstrates resilience to random node failures due to its scale-free structure, intentional assaults on central hubs pose significant threats to overall connectivity and performance. Other concerns include zombie channels, where malicious actors lock funds in inactive states to drain liquidity, and mass exit scenarios that could trigger widespread instability through simultaneous closures. Centralization tendencies, with a concentration of capacity in fewer, larger nodes, amplify these dangers by creating single points of failure. Ongoing research addresses these risks through formal verification and protocol enhancements. Recent analyses have formalized security properties, identifying issues like payout races in congested channels and proposing mitigations such as improved dispute resolution mechanisms. Studies on network topology emphasize optimizations for robustness, including strategic channel designs to counter targeted attacks and enhance decentralization. Privacy-focused efforts explore advanced cryptographic techniques to obscure channel balances and prevent probing, while liquidity management research investigates automated rebalancing to reduce failure rates. Future developments prioritize interoperability and expanded applications to mitigate limitations. Integrations with stablecoins enable features like instant transfers, as seen with USDT's 2025 launch, allowing users to leverage locked funds for payments without relinquishing control. Taproot Assets facilitate token trading, including NFTs and real-world assets, at near-zero cost and sub-second speeds, broadening use cases beyond payments. Routing improvements, such as multi-path payments, aim to increase transaction success rates above 99% for complex paths, though empirical tests of advanced algorithms like bounded multi-source shortest paths indicate ongoing challenges in implementation efficiency. Comprehensive surveys highlight active work in rebalancing protocols and fee structures to alleviate congestion, with expectations of continued enterprise adoption driving scalability in 2025.

References

  1. https://lightning.network/lightning-network-paper.pdf
  2. https://lightning.network/
  3. https://www.coindesk.com/tech/2021/02/26/a-guide-to-saving-on-bitcoins-high-transaction-fees
  4. https://bitcointalk.org/index.php?topic=193281.0
  5. https://techcrunch.com/2018/03/15/lightning-labs-just-raised-millions-from-jack-dorsey-and-others-to-supercharge-blockchain-transactions/
  6. https://www.crunchbase.com/person/olaoluwa-osuntokun
  7. https://github.com/btcsuite/btcd
  8. https://github.com/lightningnetwork/lnd
  9. https://blog.blockstream.com/en-blockstream-lightning-first-strike/
  10. https://www.coindesk.com/markets/2016/10/05/bitcoin-lightning-payments-pass-milestone-with-blockstream-test
  11. https://lightning.engineering/posts/2018-03-15-lnd-beta/
  12. https://github.com/ElementsProject/lightning
  13. https://www.coindesk.com/markets/2017/12/06/lightning-at-last-bitcoin-scaling-layer-almost-ready
  14. https://rp.os3.nl/2017-2018/p92/report.pdf
  15. https://www.reddit.com/r/Bitcoin/comments/abhqmx/rbitcoin_recap_december_2018/
  16. https://thenextweb.com/news/bitcoin-lightning-network-todd-flawed
  17. https://bitcoinist.com/bitcoin-lightning-network-1k-btc-capacity/
  18. https://www.bitstamp.net/en-gb/learn/people-profiles/jack-mallers/
  19. https://cryptobriefing.com/lightning-networks-bitcoin-capacity-tripled-in-2021/
  20. https://phemex.com/academy/bitcoin-lightning-network
  21. https://learn.bybit.com/en/blockchain/what-is-the-lightning-network
  22. https://www.nasdaq.com/articles/bitcoin-tech-booms-lightning-data-defies-digital-gold-narrative
  23. https://1ml.com/statistics
  24. https://github.com/bitcoin/bips/blob/master/bip-0112.mediawiki
  25. https://github.com/bitcoin/bips/blob/master/bip-0068.mediawiki
  26. https://docs.lightning.engineering/the-lightning-network/multihop-payments/understanding-submarine-swaps
  27. https://lightning.network/lightning-network-paper-DRAFT-0.5.pdf
  28. https://github.com/lightning/bolts/blob/master/02-peer-protocol.md
  29. https://arxiv.org/pdf/2410.13784
  30. https://github.com/lightning/bolts/blob/master/04-onion-routing.md
  31. https://bitcoin-problems.github.io/problems/channel-balance-probing.html
  32. https://www.fidelitydigitalassets.com/research-and-insights/introduction-channel-splicing-bitcoins-lightning-network
  33. https://github.com/lightning/bolts
  34. https://lightning.engineering/posts/2020-11-02-pool-deep-dive/
  35. https://docs.lightning.engineering/lightning-network-tools/lnd
  36. https://lightning.engineering/posts/2021-11-18-lnd-v0.14/
  37. https://corelightning.org/
  38. https://docs.corelightning.org/docs/plugin-development
  39. https://blog.blockstream.com/core-lightning-v23-08-satoshis-successor/
  40. https://github.com/ACINQ/eclair
  41. https://electrum.org/
  42. https://www.coindesk.com/tech/2020/07/10/bitcoin-wallet-electrum-now-supports-lightning-watchtowers-and-submarine-swaps
  43. https://medium.com/@fulgur.ventures/an-overview-of-lightning-network-implementations-d670255a6cfa
  44. https://lightning.engineering/api-docs/api/lnd/
  45. https://acinq.co/
  46. https://phoenix.acinq.co/
  47. https://breez.technology/
  48. https://www.walletofsatoshi.com/
  49. https://strike.me/en/
  50. https://lightningdevkit.org/
  51. https://boltz.exchange/
  52. https://blog.trezor.io/the-lightning-network-and-your-hardware-wallet-8f241faa9f39
  53. https://99bitcoins.com/cryptocurrency/bitcoin/lightning-network/wallets/
  54. https://www.blockchain.com/charts/transactions-per-second
  55. https://www.fidelitydigitalassets.com/sites/g/files/djuvja3256/files/acquiadam/FDA_TheLightningNetwork_ExpandingBitcoinUseCases_1187503.1.0_V5.pdf
  56. https://www.lightspark.com/knowledge/what-are-multi-path-payments-on-the-bitcoin-blockchain
  57. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308596123002070
  58. https://blog.cryptape.com/satoshi-scoop-weekly-17-october-2025
  59. https://arxiv.org/pdf/2405.02147
  60. https://arxiv.org/pdf/2208.01908
  61. https://lightningdevkit.org/blog/the-challenges-of-developing-non-custodial-lightning-on-mobile/
  62. https://www.svb.com/industry-insights/fintech/bitcoin-product-era/
  63. https://bitbo.io/news/record-lightning-institutional-transfer/
  64. https://bitcoinmagazine.com/markets/bitcoins-lightning-network-capacity-hits-new-all-time-high
  65. https://bitcoinmagazine.com/news/sdm-executes-1-million-lightning-kraken
  66. https://medium.com/the-bitcoin-beacon/bitcoins-lightning-network-hits-100-million-transactions-boosting-global-use-75be5c1e3853
  67. https://aurpay.net/aurspace/lightning-network-enterprise-adoption-2025/
  68. https://www.rhinobitcoin.com/blog/lightning-network---from-one-high-to-another
  69. https://bitcoinmagazine.com/technical/shopify-merchants-can-now-accept-lightning-network-payments-with-opennode
  70. https://strike.me/en/faq/how-do-i-use-strike-with-shopify/
  71. https://www.bitrefill.com/thor-api/?hl=en
  72. https://tether.io/news/tether-brings-usdt-to-bitcoins-lightning-network-ushering-in-a-new-era-of-unstoppable-technology/
  73. https://lightning.engineering/posts/2025-01-30-Tether-on-Lightning/
  74. https://bitcoinblog.de/2025/05/27/speed-wallet-brings-usdc-to-the-lightning-network/
  75. https://www.voltage.cloud/blog/beyond-the-bottleneck-how-lightning-and-stablecoins-will-outscale-ethereum-for-global-payments
  76. http://sphinx.chat/2021/02/12/freedom-from-free/
  77. https://www.voltage.cloud/blog/podcasting-2-0-with-breez-and-voltage
  78. https://www.tryspeed.com/blog/why-usdt-on-lightning-network-is-perfect-for-microtransactions-in-gaming/
  79. https://www.fintechweekly.com/magazine/articles/bitcoin-lightning-payments-ios-sarutobi-zbd
  80. https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/peoplemove/lightning-disruption-remittance-costs-silver-lining-entrepreneurship-during-crisis
  81. https://blog.bitfinex.com/education/what-have-we-learned-after-a-decade-of-the-lightning-network/
  82. https://www.nasdaq.com/articles/strike-launches-bitcoin-lightning-payment-app-in-el-salvador-full-eu-support-is-next-2021
  83. https://bakkt.com/blog/businesses-accepting-crypto-as-payment
  84. https://blog.opennode.com/blog/bigcommerce-bitcoin-plugin-by-opennode/
  85. https://www.coindesk.com/tech/2024/09/05/protocol-village
  86. https://www.lynalden.com/the-power-of-nostr/
  87. https://www.bitget.com/news/detail/12560604925662
  88. https://bitcoinmagazine.com/technical/jack-dorsey-backed-nostr-emerges-as-bitcoins-social-layer-at-riga-conference
  89. https://bitcoinmagazine.com/business/blockstreams-core-lightning-integrates-splicing-feature
  90. https://www.nobsbitcoin.com/eclair-v0-11-0/
  91. https://blog.blockstream.com/core-lightning-v24-11-the-lightning-dev-mailing-list/
  92. https://lightning.engineering/posts/2023-10-03-lnd-0.17-launch/
  93. https://lightning.engineering/posts/2024-07-23-taproot-assets-LN/
  94. https://lightning.engineering/posts/2025-6-24-tapd-v0.6-launch/
  95. https://www.forbes.com/sites/digital-assets/2025/02/01/tether-to-introduce-usdt-to-bitcoin-and-the-lightning-network/
  96. https://bitcoinops.org/en/newsletters/2025/04/04/
  97. https://www.lightspark.com/glossary/trampoline-payments
  98. https://blog.btrust.tech/a-look-at-ldks-dual-funded-channels-implementation-2/
  99. https://docs.lightning.engineering/lightning-network-tools/lnd/amp
  100. https://lightning.engineering/posts/2025-6-3-lnd-0.19-launch/
  101. https://www.mdpi.com/0718-1876/18/3/68
  102. https://cryptoslate.com/why-lightning-network-capacity-declining-20-in-2025-is-not-as-bad-as-it-sounds/
  103. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/393063626_Assessing_the_Topological_Vulnerabilities_of_Bitcoin%27s_Lightning_Network_Robustness_Against_Random_Failures_and_Targeted_Attacks
  104. https://hacken.io/discover/lightning-network/
  105. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/394604772_A_Comprehensive_Survey_of_Lightning_Network_Technology_and_Research
  106. https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3658644.3670315
  107. https://www.fidelitydigitalassets.com/research-and-insights/lightning-network-expanding-bitcoin-use-cases
  108. https://arxiv.org/pdf/2509.13448
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.