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Luminol
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Luminol
Luminol (C8H7N3O2) is a chemical that exhibits chemiluminescence, with a blue glow, when mixed with an appropriate oxidizing agent. Luminol is a white-to-pale-yellow crystalline solid that is soluble in most polar organic solvents but insoluble in water.
Forensic investigators use luminol to detect trace amounts of blood at crime scenes, as it reacts with the iron in hemoglobin. Biologists use it in cellular assays to detect copper, iron, and cyanides as well as specific proteins via western blotting.
When luminol is sprayed evenly across an area, trace amounts of an activating oxidant make the luminol emit a blue glow that can be seen in a darkened room. The glow only lasts about 30 seconds but can be documented photographically. The glow is stronger in areas receiving more spray; the intensity of the glow does not indicate the amount of blood or other activator present.
Luminol is synthesized in a two-step process, beginning with 3-nitrophthalic acid. First, hydrazine (N2H4) is heated with the 3-nitrophthalic acid in a high-boiling solvent such as triethylene glycol and glycerol. A condensation reaction occurs, with loss of water, forming 3-nitrophthalhydrazide. Reduction of the nitro group to an amino group with sodium dithionite (Na2S2O4), via a transient hydroxylamine intermediate, produces luminol.
The compound was first synthesized in Germany in 1902 but was not named luminol until 1934.
Oxidation of luminol produces luminescence. Basic aqueous hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a typical oxidant. In the presence of a catalyst such as an iron or periodate compound, the hydrogen peroxide decomposes to form oxygen and water. Laboratory settings often use potassium ferricyanide or potassium periodate for the catalyst. In the forensic detection of blood, the catalyst is the iron present in hemoglobin. Enzymes in a variety of biological systems may also catalyse the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.
The mechanism of luminol chemiluminescence involves a multi-step reaction. Luminol is deprotonated to produce an anion that is then oxidized to give the key intermediate α-hydroxy- peroxide. After cyclization to the endoperoxide, the mono-anion will undergo decomposition without luminescence if the pH is too low (< 8.2) for a second deprotonation. The endoperoxide dianion, however, can give the retro-Diels–Alder product: 1,2-dioxane-3,6-dione dianion which, after chemiexcitation by two single-electron transfers (SET) gives 3-aminophthalate dianion in its first singlet excited state (S1). This highly unstable molecule relaxes to the ground state, emitting light of around 425 nm wavelength (purple-blue) in the process termed chemiluminescence.
In 1928, German chemist H. O. Albrecht found that blood, among other substances, enhanced the luminescence of luminol in an alkaline solution of hydrogen peroxide. In 1936, Karl Gleu and Karl Pfannstiel confirmed this enhancement in the presence of haematin, a component of blood. In 1937, German forensic scientist Walter Specht made extensive studies of luminol's application to the detection of blood at crime scenes. In 1939, San Francisco pathologists Frederick Proescher and A. M. Moody made three important observations about luminol:
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Luminol
Luminol (C8H7N3O2) is a chemical that exhibits chemiluminescence, with a blue glow, when mixed with an appropriate oxidizing agent. Luminol is a white-to-pale-yellow crystalline solid that is soluble in most polar organic solvents but insoluble in water.
Forensic investigators use luminol to detect trace amounts of blood at crime scenes, as it reacts with the iron in hemoglobin. Biologists use it in cellular assays to detect copper, iron, and cyanides as well as specific proteins via western blotting.
When luminol is sprayed evenly across an area, trace amounts of an activating oxidant make the luminol emit a blue glow that can be seen in a darkened room. The glow only lasts about 30 seconds but can be documented photographically. The glow is stronger in areas receiving more spray; the intensity of the glow does not indicate the amount of blood or other activator present.
Luminol is synthesized in a two-step process, beginning with 3-nitrophthalic acid. First, hydrazine (N2H4) is heated with the 3-nitrophthalic acid in a high-boiling solvent such as triethylene glycol and glycerol. A condensation reaction occurs, with loss of water, forming 3-nitrophthalhydrazide. Reduction of the nitro group to an amino group with sodium dithionite (Na2S2O4), via a transient hydroxylamine intermediate, produces luminol.
The compound was first synthesized in Germany in 1902 but was not named luminol until 1934.
Oxidation of luminol produces luminescence. Basic aqueous hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a typical oxidant. In the presence of a catalyst such as an iron or periodate compound, the hydrogen peroxide decomposes to form oxygen and water. Laboratory settings often use potassium ferricyanide or potassium periodate for the catalyst. In the forensic detection of blood, the catalyst is the iron present in hemoglobin. Enzymes in a variety of biological systems may also catalyse the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.
The mechanism of luminol chemiluminescence involves a multi-step reaction. Luminol is deprotonated to produce an anion that is then oxidized to give the key intermediate α-hydroxy- peroxide. After cyclization to the endoperoxide, the mono-anion will undergo decomposition without luminescence if the pH is too low (< 8.2) for a second deprotonation. The endoperoxide dianion, however, can give the retro-Diels–Alder product: 1,2-dioxane-3,6-dione dianion which, after chemiexcitation by two single-electron transfers (SET) gives 3-aminophthalate dianion in its first singlet excited state (S1). This highly unstable molecule relaxes to the ground state, emitting light of around 425 nm wavelength (purple-blue) in the process termed chemiluminescence.
In 1928, German chemist H. O. Albrecht found that blood, among other substances, enhanced the luminescence of luminol in an alkaline solution of hydrogen peroxide. In 1936, Karl Gleu and Karl Pfannstiel confirmed this enhancement in the presence of haematin, a component of blood. In 1937, German forensic scientist Walter Specht made extensive studies of luminol's application to the detection of blood at crime scenes. In 1939, San Francisco pathologists Frederick Proescher and A. M. Moody made three important observations about luminol:
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