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Lunalilo
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Lunalilo
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Lunalilo (William Charles Lunalilo; January 31, 1835 – February 3, 1874) was the sixth monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaii from his election on January 8, 1873, until his death a year later.

Key Information

Born to Kekāuluohi and High Chief Charles Kanaʻina, he was of royal descent and a grandnephew of King Kamehameha I. He was educated at the Royal School by American missionaries and was proclaimed eligible for the throne by King Kamehameha III. After the death of King Kamehameha V, he was elected to the throne in 1873 by a unanimous decision of the legislature of the kingdom. Due to his popularity and status as Hawaii's first elected monarch, he became known as "The People's King". He died a year later from tuberculosis.

Early life

[edit]
Lunalilo as a teenager. (c. 1850-52)

William Charles Lunalilo was born on January 31, 1835, in a two-story house made of coral brick, an area known as Pohukaina, now part the grounds of the ʻIolani Palace in Honolulu. His mother was High Chiefess Miriam Auhea Kekāuluohi (later styled as Kaʻahumanu III) and his father was High Chief Charles Kanaʻina. He was grandnephew of Kamehameha I by blood and the monarch's stepson by marriage to his mother. His grandmother was Kalākua Kaheiheimālie, sister of Kamehameha's favorite wife, Queen Kaʻahumanu. This made him both, a second cousin as well as first cousin to King Kamehameha V, King Kamehameha IV, and Princess Victoria Kamāmalu through their mothers: Kekāuluohi and Kīnaʻu (later styled as Kaʻahumanu II) who were half-sisters. Lunalilo translates as Luna (high) lilo (lost) or "so high up as to be lost to sight" in the Hawaiian language.[4] He was also named after King William IV of the United Kingdom, a great friend of the Hawaiian royal family.[5]

In the 2000 publication; "Kamehameha's Children Today", authors Charles Ahlo, Rubellite Kawena Kinney Johnson and Jerry Walker state that Lunalilo's father, Charles Kanaʻina was the great-great grandson of Kamehameha I. Kanaʻina's maternal grandfather, Palila Nohomualani was Kamehameha I's grandson through the monarch's first born child named Kahiliʻōpua, daughter of Kalola-a-Kumukoa, also known as Kalolawahilani. This genealogy is based on previously unpublished family trees compiled by the DeFries family.[6]

He was declared eligible to succeed by the royal decree of King Kamehameha III and sent to the Chief's Children's School (later called the Royal School) when it was founded by missionaries Amos Starr Cooke and Juliette Montague Cooke.[7][8][9][10] Learning to speak both Hawaiian and English, he gained a mastery of English literature and love of Shakespearian soliloquies.[11][12] According to one of his cousins, Elizabeth Kekaaniau, Lunalilo was groomed to one day assume the Governorship of Oahu after Kekūanaōʻa's death.[13]

Before the Great Mahele Lunalilo's holdings of 239 ʻāina were second only to Kamehameha III. As a result of the Mahele, he relinquished 73 percent of his land.[14] As of 1848, at the age of thirteen, he was still one of the largest landowners after the King, inheriting the land and personal property given to his mother father and grandmother by Kamehameha I.[15] In 1850 Lunalilo gave up another large amount of land to the government reducing his holdings to 43 lots.[14][16]

Affectionately known as "Prince Bill," he was one of the royals (besides Kalākaua and Liliʻuokalani) to write music. He composed Hawaii's first national anthem, "E Ola Ke Aliʻi Ke Akua," which was Hawaii's version of "God Save The King".[17] He wrote the song in fifteen minutes in a contest hosted by newspaper publisher Henry Whitney in 1862 for the birthday of Kamehameha IV. He won the contest and was awarded ten dollars.[18]

Lunalilo served on the Privy Council of State, the advisory council for the monarch, from 1863 to 1865, during the reign of his cousin King Kamehameha V. He also served on the House of Nobles, the upper house of the legislature, traditionally reserved for the high chiefs, from 1863 to 1872.[19][20]

Prospective royal brides

[edit]
Photograph of a young Lunalilo by Henry L. Chase.

He was betrothed to his cousin Princess Victoria Kamāmalu, a popular choice among the Hawaiian people except for Victoria's brothers. They both refused to have her marry him. Their children would outrank the House of Kamehameha in family rank (mana). There were two failed attempts of marriage between the two. Lunalilo composed the Hawaiian song ʻAlekoki for his unrequited love. After Victoria, he briefly courted the hand of Liliʻuokalani, but she broke off the engagement on the advice of Kamehameha IV. Liliʻuokalani would eventually marry American John Owen Dominis and Victoria Kamāmalu would die unmarried and childless at the age of 27 in 1866.[21][22][23] Another alleged prospective bride was a maternal cousin Miriam Auhea Kekāuluohi Crowningburg, who married a German-American settler instead.[24]

During his reign as king, it was proposed that he marry Queen Emma, the widow of Kamehameha IV, but this proposal came to nothing due to Queen Emma's devotion to her late husband. They remained friends and it was said he considered naming her as his heir before he died. According to Emma's cousin Peter Kaʻeo, there were gossips that the King would marry a Tahitian chiefess from Bora Bora. Although never marrying, the king took Eliza Meek (1832–1888), the hapa-haole daughter of Captain John Meek, the harbor pilot of Honolulu, and sister-in-law of his chamberlain Horace Crabbe, as his mistress.[25]

Election

[edit]
Lunalilo was considered the more popular candidate.

King Kamehameha V, the last of the Kamehameha kings, died on December 11, 1872, without naming a successor. Under the Kingdom's 1864 constitution, if the king did not appoint a successor, a new king would be elected by the legislature from the eligible Hawaiian royalty still alive. The other candidate was David Kalākaua. Lunalilo was the more popular of the two. His grandfather was Kalaimamahu, a half brother of Kamehameha I and was thus a cousin of King Kamehameha V. His grandmother was Queen Kalakua Kaheiheimalie, sister of Queen Kaʻahumanu. Because of this, many people believed the throne rightly belonged to Lunalilo since the only person more closely related to Kamehameha V, Bernice Pauahi Bishop, made clear she did not want the throne. Another contender was Princess Ruth Keʻelikōlani who was a half sister to King Kamehameha V. She was a favorite among the Hawaiian chiefs because of her adhering to the old Hawaiian ways. She was governess of Hawaii and refused to speak English even though she was fluent in it. Her genealogy, however, was too controversial and few people considered her suitable to take the throne. This left Kalākaua and Lunalilo, and of the two, Lunalilo was greatly favored. So great was Lunalilo's popularity that some people believed that Lunalilo could have simply walked into the capital and declared himself king. Lunalilo, however, insisted that the constitution be followed. He issued the following message six days after the death of Kamehameha V:

"Whereas, it is desirable that the wishes of the Hawaiian people be consulted as to a successor to the Throne, therefore, notwithstanding that according to the law of inheritance, I am the rightful heir to the Throne, in order to preserve peace, harmony and good order, I desire to submit the decision of my claim to the voice of the people."[26]

Lunalilo, unlike his more conservative opponent, wanted to amend the constitution to make the government more democratic by removing property qualifications for voting.[27] It was decided that there would be a popular election to give the people a chance to have their voices heard. However, because the constitution gave the legislature the power to decide who would be the next king, the popular election would be unofficial. Lunalilo urged the people of the Kingdom to have their voices heard.[28]

The popular vote was held on January 1, 1873, and Lunalilo won by an overwhelming majority.[29][30] The week after, the legislature unanimously voted Lunalilo king. It has been speculated that the reason for the unanimous vote was because each legislator was required to sign his name on the back of his ballot, and the legislators were afraid to go against the wishes of the people. Queen Emma later wrote in a letter that hundreds of Hawaiians were ready to tear to pieces anyone who opposed Lunalilo.[31][32][33]

At Lunalilo's investiture ceremony, held on January 9, 1873, at Kawaiahaʻo Church, the courtyard was filled to capacity and a large crowd watched from outside.[34] Because Lunalilo's popularity was so great, and because he became king through a democratic process, he became known as "The People's King."[23][35]

Reign as King

[edit]
Lunalilo, painting by Danish artist Eiler Jurgensen, ʻIolani Palace

When Lunalilo assumed the duties of the king, a huge change in the government's policy began to form. His predecessor, Kamehameha V, had spent his reign increasing the powers of his office and trying to restore the absolute monarchy of his grandfather, Kamehameha I. Lunalilo, however, spent his reign trying to make the Hawaiian government more democratic. He started by writing to the legislature, recommending that the constitution be amended. He wanted to undo some changes that his predecessor had made when he enacted the 1864 Constitution.[27]

For example, the Kingdom legislature prior to 1864 met in two houses: The House of Nobles and the House of Representatives. The members of the House of Nobles were appointed by the King and the Representatives were elected by popular vote. Lunalilo served in the House of Nobles from 1863 through 1872.[36] Under King Kamehameha V, the two houses of legislature were combined into one. Lunalilo wished to restore the bicameral legislature. He also wanted to add a provision to the constitution that required the king to include a written explanation to accompany any veto by the king. He wanted cabinet ministers to be heard in the House of Representatives.[37]

The King also wanted to improve Hawaii's economic situation. The Kingdom was in an economic depression, with the whaling industry rapidly declining. Commerce groups asked the king to look at sugar to improve the economy and recommended that a treaty be drawn with the United States to allow Hawaiian sugar to enter the nation tax-free. To make such a treaty, many thought that the Kingdom would have to offer the Pearl Harbor area to the United States in exchange. There was much controversy over this, with both the public and in the legislature. When Lunalilo saw this opposition, he dropped the proposal.[38]

During Lunalilo's reign, a mutiny took place in the small Hawaiian army. Some members of the army revolted against the drillmaster and the adjutant general. The king interviewed the troops involved in the mutiny and he persuaded them to lay down their arms. Following this, the king disbanded the army apart from the military band. From that point on, the Kingdom had no armed forces until King Kalākaua restored them.[39]

Illness and death

[edit]

King Lunalilo had some bad health habits; for example, he was an alcoholic.[40] Around August 1873, Lunalilo contracted a severe cold which developed into pulmonary tuberculosis.[41] In hopes of regaining his health, he moved to Kailua-Kona. A few months later, on February 3, 1874, he died from tuberculosis at the age of 39, at Haimoeipo, his private residence in Honolulu. Lunalilo had reigned for one year and twenty-five days.[42][43]

King Lunalilo's Mausoleum.

On his deathbed, he requested a burial at Kawaiahaʻo Church on the church's ground. He wanted, he said, to be "entombed among (my) people, rather than the kings and chiefs" at the Royal Mausoleum in Nuʻuanu Valley. This was due to a feud between Lunalilo and the Kamehameha family over his mother Kekāuluohi's exclusion from the list of royalty to be buried there.[44] Thus, on November 23, 1875, his remains were taken from the Mausoleum, where it had rested temporarily awaiting the completion of the Lunalilo Mausoleum, to the completed tomb on the grounds of Kawaiahaʻo Church. His father requested a second funeral and a 21-gun salute from Kalākaua like during his first funeral. Kalākaua granted the second funeral but refused to allow the 21-gun salute. During this procession, eyewitness reports stated that a sudden storm arose, and that twenty-one rapid thunderclaps echoed across Honolulu which came to be known as the "21-gun salute."[45][46]

Like his predecessor, Lunalilo did not designate an heir to the throne. It was said he had intended for Queen Emma to succeed him, but died before a formal proclamation could be made. The most prevalent explanation of this delay is regarding his democratic principles: he wished to have the people choose their next ruler. However, the constitution of 1864 had charged the legislature, not the people, with the task of electing the next king. In the end, Kalākaua of the House of Kalākaua was voted to succeed Lunalilo as king.[47] The election provoked the Honolulu Courthouse riots in which supporters of Queen Emma targeted legislators who supported Kalākaua; thirteen legislators were injured, with J. W. Lonoaea the only one to die from his injuries.[48]

Legacy

[edit]

In his will, Lunalilo set aside lands for the establishment of the Lunalilo Home, the first charitable trust established by a Hawaiian aliʻi trust, to house the poor, destitute, and infirmed people of Hawaiian descent, with preference given to older people.[49][14][50][51]

Family tree

[edit]
MakakaualiiKapulaoaPalila NohomualaniMoana (w)Keōua
Father of king Kamehameha I		KamakaeheikuliKeʻeaumoku Pāpaʻiahiahi
Father of Kaʻahumanu		Namahanaʻi Kaleleokalani
KalaipuwaaKaleimanokahoʻowahaEiaKauwaKalaʻimamahu
Half-brother of Kamehameha I		Kalākua Kaheiheimālie
Charles Kanaʻina
(1801–1877)
Kekāuluohi
Kuhina Nui of the Hawaiian Islands
(July 27, 1794 – June 7, 1845)
Kamehameha I
Founder of the Hawaiian Kingdom
Kamehameha II
King of the Hawaiian islands

William Charles Lunalilo,
King of the Hawaiian Islands
(January 31, 1835 – February 3, 1874)

References

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Bibliography

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Lunalilo

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William Charles Lunalilo (January 31, 1835 – February 3, 1874) was the sixth monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaii, serving as king from January 8, 1873, until his death.
Born in Honolulu to High Chiefess Miriam ʻAuhea Kekāuluohi, the Kuhina Nui (premier), and High Chief Charles Kanaʻina, Lunalilo was a great-grandson of Kamehameha I through the senior line, positioning him as a claimant to the throne.
Educated at the Chiefs' Children's School, he excelled in literature and music, composing Hawaii's first national anthem, "E Ola Ke Aliʻi Ke Akua," in 1860.
Following Kamehameha V's death without an heir on December 11, 1872, Lunalilo was unanimously elected by the Legislative Assembly on January 8, 1873, after a public plebiscite demonstrated overwhelming support from the native Hawaiian population, earning him the title "The People's King."
His brief reign, lasting one year and 25 days, focused on efforts to promulgate a new constitution reducing monarchical power and establishing a bicameral legislature, though these reforms were rejected by the legislature amid cabinet instability.
Afflicted with pulmonary tuberculosis since childhood—exacerbated by reported alcoholism—Lunalilo died without issue or named successor, precipitating a contested election between David Kalākaua and Queen Emma that sparked the Honolulu Riot of 1874.
In his will, he established the Lunalilo Trust, the first major charitable endowment by a Hawaiian aliʻi, providing perpetual support for poor, infirm, and elderly Native Hawaiians through land revenues funding residential care facilities.

Ancestry and Early Life

Birth and Immediate Family

William Charles Lunalilo was born on January 31, 1835, in the Pohukaina district of , an area now incorporated into the grounds of . He was the only surviving son of High Chief Charles Kanaʻina and High Chiefess Miriam ʻAuhea Kekāuluohi, both prominent (chiefs) within the Kingdom of Hawaii's nobility. Charles Kanaʻina (c. 1798–1877) descended from ancient Hawaiian chiefly lines, including as a great-great-grandson of through his maternal grandfather Palila Nohomualani, and held positions such as member of the House of Nobles and privy councilor; he later remarried and managed extensive land holdings. His wife, (1794–1839), was the daughter of Kalaʻimamahū, a half-brother of , making Lunalilo a grandnephew of the kingdom's founding monarch; she governed as the third (premier and regent) under from 1833 until her death, wielding significant executive authority alongside the king. Kekāuluohi's death from complications related to when Lunalilo was four years old left him primarily under his father's nominal care, though Hawaiian custom of (informal adoption) placed him in the household of his childless paternal aunt, Chiefess Laura Konia, who raised him amid the royal court. This arrangement integrated him deeply into the extended Kamehameha familial network, enhancing his status among potential heirs despite the absence of full siblings.

Education and Formative Influences

William Charles Lunalilo, born on January 31, 1835, received his primary education at the Chiefs' Children's School (Hale Kula ), established in in 1839 by King to prepare the children of Hawaiian (chiefs) for future leadership roles through a structured Western-influenced curriculum. As one of the school's inaugural students, Lunalilo enrolled at age four and remained there throughout much of his childhood, studying subjects including , arithmetic, , and history under the instruction of American missionaries and Juliette Montague Cooke, who emphasized discipline, hygiene, and Christian moral values alongside academic instruction. The environment, designed to instill habits of , tidiness, and —qualities deemed essential for modern governance—profoundly shaped Lunalilo's formative years, blending rigorous daily routines with exposure to Protestant ethics and rudimentary sciences. This contrasted with traditional Hawaiian oral learning, fostering in Lunalilo an appreciation for and written composition, evident in his later proficiency in poetry and hymn-writing, which drew from both cultural heritage and missionary influences. Lunalilo's upbringing was further influenced by his immediate family and royal lineage; following the death of his mother, High Chiefess Miriam ʻAuhea Kekāuluohi, in 1845, he was raised within the extended Kamehameha dynasty, as the grandson of Kamehameha I's half-sister and grandnephew to the founding king, reinforcing a sense of dynastic duty amid Hawaii's transition from toward constitutional rule. These elements—formal schooling, familial prestige, and the era's cultural shifts—cultivated his identity as a bridge between indigenous chiefly traditions and emerging Western institutions, though his education was truncated by health issues and the school's closure in 1850 due to a outbreak among students.

Youthful Indiscretions and Personal Habits

In his youth, William Charles Lunalilo displayed a wayward disposition characterized by excessive indulgence in merriment and alcohol, traits that contrasted with his royal education at the Chiefs' Children's School. Born in , he exhibited these behaviors prominently by his early twenties, leading to financial mismanagement as he reportedly expended his modest allowances primarily on drink. These habits prompted the imposition of a formal guardianship over his estate, documented in judicial records from 1858 to 1868, during which his father, High Chief Charles Kanaʻina, and later figures like oversaw his finances to curb dissipation. , as guardian, apportioned Lunalilo a limited monthly of $25, reflecting concerns over his profligacy and inability to handle resources responsibly at age 24. Such measures were deemed necessary due to his chronic , which contemporaries, including , labeled him a "drunkard" for, hindering personal and potential political prospects like a proposed engagement to . Lunalilo's personal habits extended beyond indulgence to creative outlets, such as composing the hapa song "'Alekoki" in his twenties, which celebrated leisurely pursuits amid his social circles, yet these were overshadowed by health-impairing drinking that persisted into adulthood. Despite his amiable and generous nature—earning the nickname "Prince Bill" among friends—his indiscretions fostered perceptions of unreliability, though he later moderated somewhat upon ascending the in 1873.

Path to the Throne

Early Political Engagement

Lunalilo demonstrated early interest in political reform during the Hawaiian Kingdom's Constitutional Convention of 1864, convened by King to revise the 1852 . As a high-ranking with claims to the throne, he advocated for a bicameral comprising a House of Nobles and a House of Representatives, emphasizing reduced monarchical authority and greater representation for the people to prevent arbitrary rule. His positions aligned with liberal factions opposing the king's push for centralized power, including property qualifications for voters and the appointment of nobles, though the convention ultimately deadlocked, leading Kamehameha V to promulgate the more authoritarian 1864 constitution unilaterally on August 20, 1864. Throughout the 1860s, Lunalilo maintained a seat in the House of Nobles by virtue of his chiefly status, where he occasionally participated in debates, though his attendance was irregular and often marked by informal interjections rather than formal speeches. His advocacy reflected a consistent preference for democratic principles over absolutism, influencing his later push for constitutional amendments to restore elements of the framework, such as broader . This stance positioned him as a counterweight to the conservative policies of Kamehameha V's reign, fostering public perception of him as a proponent of popular governance amid growing tensions over royal prerogatives.

Rivalry and Succession Prospects

As the senior surviving male descendant of the through his grandmother Kalakua Kaheiheimalie—sister to the influential Kaʻahumanu—Lunalilo held strong hereditary claims to the throne, positioning him as a leading prospect for succession upon the anticipated demise of his cousin, King , who ruled without issue from 1863 to 1872. His lineage traced directly to the founding dynasty established by , fostering widespread belief among that the crown rightfully devolved to him as the last viable Kamehameha heir, a view reinforced by constitutional provisions allowing legislative from royal descendants in the absence of a named successor. However, Lunalilo's political prospects had been curtailed earlier; his cousins and V, wary of his liberal leanings and personal habits, denied him cabinet positions or significant governmental roles, limiting his experience to informal influence and occasional legislative participation despite his noble status. The death of on December 11, 1872, without appointing an heir, precipitated a under Article 22 of the 1864 Constitution, compelling the to select a monarch and igniting rivalry between Lunalilo and David Kalakaua, a high chief from a collateral line lacking direct Kamehameha ties. Kalakaua, advocating continuity with the conservative policies of , positioned himself as an alternative to preserve monarchical authority against Lunalilo's pledges for constitutional reform and greater popular input, including his public call for a plebiscite on January 1, 1873, to gauge native support—though the legislature proceeded with its vote regardless. Lunalilo's immense popularity among the kānaka (native population), who acclaimed him as "the People's King" for his democratic inclinations and dynastic legitimacy, overshadowed Kalakaua's backers in the assembly, where factional debates highlighted tensions between reformist and traditionalist elites but culminated in Lunalilo's unanimous election on January 8, 1873. This rivalry underscored a pivotal shift: Lunalilo represented the culmination of Kamehameha rule, while Kalakaua's candidacy foreshadowed the of Kalakaua's ascendancy, though Lunalilo's victory averted immediate crisis by aligning with public sentiment.

Unconsummated Marriage Considerations

Lunalilo was betrothed to his cousin, Princess , in the mid-19th century, but the union never materialized due to opposition from her brothers, Kings and , who sought to consolidate power within their immediate line. This failed betrothal, described in historical accounts as occurring amid familial rivalries, left Lunalilo without a high-ranking consort from the ali'i class, potentially weakening his position in succession discussions by highlighting the absence of direct heirs. Lunalilo expressed his affections through the composition of the song ʻAlekoki, a mele traditionally attributed to his unrequited feelings for Victoria, underscoring the emotional and political dimensions of the unfulfilled match. Later prospects included a rumored to Princess , who ultimately married John Owen in 1862, forgoing any union with Lunalilo despite earlier considerations of a match that could have strengthened Kamehameha lineage ties. Additional whispers linked Lunalilo to Eliza Meek, daughter of sea captain John F. B. Meek, amid reports of a contentious relationship marked by incidents noted by Queen Emma, though no formal marriage ensued and tensions arose from social incompatibilities between ali'i and haole-influenced families. These unconsummated overtures reflected broader challenges in securing a suitable partner of equivalent chiefly rank, as contemporary observers noted the of eligible native women amid declining ali'i numbers and cultural shifts, which complicated dynastic stability. The absence of and progeny raised strategic concerns among political elites regarding Lunalilo's viability as a long-term successor, particularly in a kingdom where hereditary lines underpinned legitimacy; without heirs, his ascension risked perpetuating the constitutional crises seen after Kamehameha V's death in 1872. Lunalilo's bachelor status, compounded by personal habits like alcohol use, fueled debates on his capacity for enduring rule, though public affection prioritized his democratic leanings over matrimonial shortcomings. Ultimately, these considerations did not derail his election but amplified vulnerabilities in the system, as Lunalilo's failure to wed or designate an heir left the throne's future unresolved upon his death in 1874.

Election as Monarch

Death of Kamehameha V and Constitutional Crisis

Kamehameha V died on December 11, 1872, at the age of 42 in , coinciding with preparations for his birthday celebration. He had been in declining health for some time but did not publicly designate a successor before his passing, leaving the throne vacant without an heir from the Kamehameha dynasty. The Hawaiian Kingdom's Constitution of 1864, promulgated under himself, addressed succession in Article 22, stipulating that in the absence of a designated heir or issue, the Cabinet Council—comprising the of State, the heirs presumptive, and the principal officers of government—would nominate candidates, after which the would elect a new sovereign from among the most eligible native Hawaiian chiefs of the kingdom. This mechanism, intended to preserve monarchical continuity through legislative consensus rather than alone, now triggered a as the end of the Kamehameha line exposed ambiguities in eligibility and potential factionalism among (chiefs), with no automatic successor in place. Immediate aftermath saw public mourning across the kingdom, with citizens grieving the loss of the last Kamehameha ruler, yet the vacancy prompted urgent calls for stability to avert power vacuums or foreign interference amid Hawaii's geopolitical vulnerabilities. underscored tensions between constitutional formalism and practical governance, as the prepared to convene an extraordinary session to implement the election process, weighing candidates descended from the ancient lines of Hawaiian royalty while navigating influences from missionary-descended (foreigners) elites and native factions. This elective process, rare in modern monarchies, risked deadlock or unrest if consensus failed, heightening the stakes for the kingdom's .

Public Support and Electoral Process

Following the death of on December 11, 1872, Prince William Charles Lunalilo, a high-ranking with descent from the Kamehameha line, emerged as the leading candidate for the throne due to his strong backing among Native Hawaiian makaʻāinana (commoners). On December 16, 1872, Lunalilo issued a public asserting his genealogical claims to the succession and pledging reforms, including the restoration of voting rights restricted under the 1864 Constitution, while soliciting expressions of to guide the legislature. This document, distributed widely, framed his candidacy as aligned with democratic aspirations, contrasting with rival David ’s competing emphasizing traditional chiefly lineage. Public support for Lunalilo manifested through spontaneous meetings across the in late December 1872, where communities voiced endorsements at gatherings such as those at and district assemblies, reflecting his reputation for accessibility and affinity with commoners over more aristocratic rivals. To formalize this sentiment, Lunalilo advocated for a non-binding plebiscite on , 1873, allowing makaʻāinana to register their preference amid the governed by a Council of Regency. The vote yielded overwhelming results in his favor, with approximately 12,364 ballots cast for Lunalilo out of total submissions from various districts, underscoring his status as the "People's King" and pressuring legislative deliberation. Under Article 22 of the 1864 Constitution, the Legislative Assembly held authority to elect the monarch from eligible aliʻi in cases of vacancy without a designated heir, convening in special session at the Judiciary Building on January 8, 1873. Influenced by the plebiscite's clear mandate and absence of viable alternatives—despite nominal support for figures like Bernice Pauahi Bishop, who declined—the assembly voted unanimously, 37-0, to acclaim Lunalilo as king, bypassing direct popular election but affirming public consensus. He took the oath the following day at Kawaiahaʻo Church, pledging to uphold the constitution while signaling intent for amendments based on popular input. This process marked the first instance of legislative selection informed by explicit public consultation in Hawaiian monarchical history, though constrained by the constitution's elite framework.

Legislative Assembly Vote and Acclamation

On January 8, 1873, the of the convened at the in to fulfill its constitutional obligation under Article 22 of the 1864 Constitution, which required of a successor by in the event of a monarch's death without a designated heir. Prince William Charles Lunalilo, grandson of Kamehameha I's brother, emerged as the sole viable candidate amid widespread public endorsements gathered through petitions from Native Hawaiian communities across the islands, including unanimous support from districts on Oahu, , , and Kauai. Lunalilo had publicly requested consultation with the people prior to the assembly's vote, leading to mass gatherings and demonstrations of acclamation that underscored his popularity as the "People's King," distinct from the Kamehameha dynasty's more autocratic lineage. At noon, the 37 members cast their ballots, awarding Lunalilo every vote in a unanimous decision, with no support for potential rivals such as David Kalakaua, who lacked comparable backing at the time. This outcome reflected not only Lunalilo's genealogical proximity to the founding Kamehameha line but also his pledges for constitutional reforms favoring popular representation. Immediately following the vote, Preston proclaimed Lunalilo's from the steps of the Building, announcing to assembled crowds: "Know ye, that the ... has unanimously elected His Royal Highness Prince William Charles Lunalilo to be King of the ." The acclamation extended beyond the assembly, as reports documented near-universal ratification in informal popular plebiscites organized island-wide, where Lunalilo secured overwhelming majorities—such as all but a handful of votes in some tallies—reinforcing the legitimacy of his ascension before formal the next day at Kawaiaha'o Church.

Reign and Policies

Attempts at Constitutional Reform

Lunalilo sought to amend the Constitution of 1864, which he viewed as overly favoring monarchical authority, to promote greater popular participation in governance. In the lead-up to his election, he lifted the property and income qualifications for native Hawaiian male voters—requirements established under Kamehameha V—to enable broader involvement in the plebiscite held on January 1, 1873, where participants ratified his candidacy nearly unanimously across the islands. This temporary expansion of suffrage marked an initial step toward democratization, contrasting with the restrictive voting standards that had limited the electorate primarily to wealthier property owners. Following his formal by the on January 8, 1873, Lunalilo addressed the assembly, affirming his commitment to uphold the existing while alluding to potential amendments that "could properly and usefully be made" through legal processes, such as convening the to propose changes. His proposed reforms aimed at reducing absolute royal prerogatives, enhancing legislative oversight of ministers, and further broadening voter eligibility beyond the election plebiscite, reflecting his for the people's interests as demonstrated in prior constitutional debates. These efforts encountered resistance amid a political standoff over cabinet appointments. In August 1873, Lunalilo dismissed his initial ministers—perceived as obstructive to his policy goals, including reciprocity treaty negotiations—and nominated replacements, but the responded by denying them confidence votes and adjourning without endorsing the changes or advancing constitutional proposals. No formal amendments were enacted during his 13-month reign, as his deteriorating health from pulmonary precluded further pursuit, leaving the 1864 framework intact until after his death on February 3, 1874.

Domestic Governance and Administrative Challenges

Lunalilo's short reign was characterized by heavy reliance on his cabinet for day-to-day administration, as the king's health limited his personal involvement in governance. The cabinet included prominent figures such as , appointed as Minister of , alongside other members drawn from missionary and business backgrounds to manage internal operations amid the kingdom's constitutional framework. This delegation reflected Lunalilo's intent to foster a more consultative executive, including proposals for cabinet ministers to address the directly, though such measures encountered resistance from entrenched legislative conservatives. The Hawaiian economy, already weakened by the near-collapse of the industry after 1860 and fluctuating markets, entered a pronounced depression during Lunalilo's tenure from 1873 to February 1874, complicating fiscal administration and public resource allocation. Government revenues struggled to cover administrative costs, with exports—key to recovery—hampered by global oversupply and lack of favorable agreements, forcing ministers to prioritize servicing over or social programs. Administrative inefficiencies arose from this strain, including delays in reforms and limited capacity to address rural unrest or urban poverty in , where outpaced bureaucratic expansion. Internal security posed further challenges, exemplified by a in the Royal Guard on October 24, 1873, when soldiers protested pay arrears and harsh discipline under Captain Joseph Carter, briefly seizing the before being subdued without fatalities. This incident exposed vulnerabilities in military administration, including inadequate funding and morale issues tied to the economic downturn, prompting temporary reinforcements from allied naval forces but underscoring the fragility of domestic order. Enforcement of policies, such as the rigorous application of leper segregation laws under the 1865 Act to Prevent the Spread of , intensified administrative burdens and fueled native discontent during Lunalilo's rule. Officials expanded isolation at Kalaupapa, displacing families and invoking resistance from communities viewing the measures as culturally insensitive overreach, which strained relations between the crown's bureaucracy and the populace without yielding clear epidemiological gains by 1874. These efforts, while rooted in missionary-influenced reforms, highlighted tensions between imported administrative models and indigenous social structures, contributing to perceptions of executive detachment.

Foreign Relations and Reciprocity Treaty Efforts

Lunalilo's administration prioritized negotiations for a reciprocity with the , aimed at granting duty-free access to American markets for Hawaiian sugar and agricultural products, which formed the backbone of the kingdom's export economy. Previous monarchs, including and , had pursued similar agreements without success, and Lunalilo continued these efforts amid growing pressure from and legislators dependent on trade stability. Proposals surfaced in early 1873 for Lunalilo to personally visit Washington to advance talks, reflecting optimism that direct royal diplomacy could overcome prior impasses, such as U.S. demands for concessions on land or naval basing rights like in exchange for tariff relief. However, these initiatives faltered due to persistent disagreements over terms, including American insistence on strategic territorial guarantees that clashed with Hawaiian sovereignty concerns. Lunalilo reportedly rejected at least one draft treaty on July 5, 1873, citing opposition to provisions that contradicted the popular mandate of his election. Broader foreign relations remained stable but unremarkable, with the kingdom upholding existing treaties of friendship and commerce with powers like Britain and , while focusing resources on domestic constitutional reforms amid Lunalilo's declining health. No new bilateral agreements were concluded before his death on February 3, 1874, leaving reciprocity unresolved until negotiations resumed under his successor, Kalakaua, culminating in the 1875 treaty.

Military and Security Incidents

On September 7, 1873, the Household Troops of the , stationed at ʻIolani Barracks in , mutinied against their commanding officer, Jajczay, a Hungarian drillmaster, and the , primarily due to longstanding grievances over harsh and foreign leadership. Approximately 40 to 54 soldiers participated, refusing orders and confining officers, which briefly disrupted kingdom security while King Lunalilo was convalescing from illness at Waikīkī. In response, Lunalilo mobilized the volunteer , a haole-dominated , to maintain order and prevent escalation into broader civil unrest, though no widespread race-based rioting occurred. The king urged the mutineers to submit to legal authority and promised clemency, leading them to stack arms and surrender without violence after several days. Fearing further instability amid his fragile health and political challenges, Lunalilo issued a on September 12, 1873, disbanding the Household Troops, Leleiohoku Guard, and , leaving the kingdom without a regular except for the royal band. This decision reflected distrust in the military's loyalty but exposed vulnerabilities in internal security, as volunteer forces were relied upon temporarily thereafter. No additional major military or security disturbances transpired during the remainder of his brief reign, which ended with his death in February 1874.

Decline, Death, and Succession

Onset of Illness and Health Management

In August 1873, approximately seven months into his reign, King Lunalilo experienced a marked deterioration in , beginning with a severe that progressed to pulmonary , compounded by chronic and pre-existing respiratory vulnerabilities from childhood. Persistent coughing emerged as a primary symptom, alongside fever, stiff back, and exacerbated by a subsequent chill from sleeping outdoors in Waikiki. On August 30, 1873, he suffered a fall from bed, resulting in head and neck injuries that further weakened him. Efforts to manage his condition involved relocation for climatic relief and supportive medical interventions typical of the era. Initially, Lunalilo retreated to a Waikiki beach house by mid-August to convalesce, followed by a journey on November 17, 1873, to Kailua-Kona on the island of Hawaiʻi, accompanied by court members including Eliza Meek, in hopes that the drier, warmer environment would aid recovery. Physicians such as Dr. Trousseau oversaw care, administering remedies including , milk, brandy punch, and , while Queen Emma provided personal companionship during periods of isolation. Despite these measures and multiple residence shifts between September 1873 and early 1874, his advanced unchecked, reflecting the limited therapeutic options available for the disease at the time.

Final Months and Lack of Heir

In August 1873, approximately eight months into his reign, Lunalilo contracted a severe that progressed into pulmonary , a condition he had battled intermittently since childhood and which was aggravated by chronic . His symptoms included persistent coughing and respiratory distress, confining him increasingly to his residence at Haimōipo in , where he rarely ventured outside the palace grounds for the final ten months of his life. Lunalilo's health deteriorated steadily through late 1873 and into early 1874, with medical consultations confirming the advanced stage of his lung disease, though no effective treatments reversed the decline. Despite his weakening state, he continued to engage minimally with , prioritizing democratic principles by refusing to name a successor and insisting instead on legislative election to uphold , a stance rooted in his election as king in 1873. This approach stemmed from his unmarried status and lack of legitimate heirs, as he had no children and had not produced issue from any relationships, leaving the throne's continuity dependent on constitutional mechanisms rather than dynastic inheritance. On his deathbed, Lunalilo explicitly directed the to convene promptly upon his passing to select the next , thereby avoiding any interim while adhering to his vision of over hereditary rule. His childlessness and deliberate avoidance of designating an heir reflected both personal circumstances—exacerbated by health issues that precluded family—and a philosophical commitment to broadening political participation beyond the Kamehameha lineage, though it introduced uncertainty amid his rapid physical decline.

Death and Immediate Power Vacuum

Lunalilo succumbed to pulmonary on February 3, 1874, at the age of 39, after a prolonged illness exacerbated by chronic alcoholism. His death occurred in without any designation of a successor, despite constitutional expectations for the monarch to appoint one in the absence of direct heirs. On his deathbed, Lunalilo expressed wishes for burial at Kawaiaha'o Church rather than the Royal Mausoleum at Mauna 'Ala, honoring a personal preference over traditional protocol, but issued no directives regarding the throne's succession. The sudden demise created an immediate constitutional , the second within two years following Kamehameha V's death in 1872, as the 1864 Constitution mandated that the elect a new sovereign from among native Hawaiian ali'i nui in such cases. To avert prolonged instability amid foreign interests in the islands, including American and British naval presences, the cabinet swiftly convened the legislature for February 12, 1874. David Kalakaua declared his on February 4, positioning himself as a reform-minded from the House of Kalakaua, while Queen Emma, widow of and a descendant of earlier chiefs, announced hers the following day, drawing support from pro-British and traditionalist factions. In the assembly vote on , Kalakaua secured 39 votes to Emma's 6, formalizing his ascension and ending the vacuum. However, the outcome ignited immediate unrest, with Emma's supporters—known as "Queenites"—rioting outside I'olani Palace, smashing windows and clashing with police, prompting landings by U.S. and British marines to restore order and underscoring the fragile power transition. This episode highlighted underlying divisions between popular electoral traditions initiated under Lunalilo and entrenched loyalties, with foreign intervention revealing the monarchy's vulnerability to external pressures during successions.

Legacy and Historical Assessment

Philanthropic Endowments and Trusts

In his will, King William Charles Lunalilo bequeathed the bulk of his estate, consisting primarily of extensive lands, to establish a perpetual charitable trust dedicated to the care of poor, destitute, and infirm individuals of Hawaiian descent, with a particular emphasis on the elderly. This marked the first instance of a major Hawaiian aliʻi creating such a trust for the broader benefit of the native population rather than familial heirs. The trust's administration was structured to ensure longevity, with the justices of the Hawaiian Supreme Court tasked to nominate and appoint three trustees responsible for managing the endowment and fulfilling its mandate. Proceeds from the estate's lands funded the construction and operation of Lunalilo Home, which opened in 1883 in to provide residential care aligning with the king's vision of support for vulnerable Hawaiians. Over time, the endowment evolved into the modern King Lunalilo Trust, which continues to prioritize elder care, including long-term services and for kūpuna, while adhering to the original intent of aiding those without means. The trust's assets, derived from Lunalilo's pre-monarchical landholdings, have sustained operations for nearly 150 years, demonstrating the enduring impact of his philanthropic foresight amid Hawaii's shifting demographics and economic pressures. William Charles Lunalilo's ascension marked the first instance of an elected monarch in Hawaiian history, selected through a constitutional legislative process rather than hereditary succession or traditional proclamation. Following the death of on December 11, 1872, without a designated heir, Lunalilo declined calls to claim the throne via ancient chiefly customs and instead adhered to Article 22 of the 1864 Constitution, which empowered the to choose a successor from eligible candidates of chiefly rank. On January 8, 1873, the unanimously elected him king after considering alternatives like David Kalākaua, establishing a precedent for merit-based and assembly-vetted selection over divine-right inheritance. Prior to the formal legislative vote, Lunalilo initiated a non-binding popular plebiscite on , 1873, inviting all male subjects aged 20 and older—regardless of property ownership or tax payment—to express support, thereby broadening participation beyond the restricted electorate defined in the existing . This measure, which drew widespread acclaim and resulted in unanimous endorsement for Lunalilo, underscored his commitment to incorporating public sentiment into monarchical legitimacy, earning him the moniker "The People's King." Although advisory only, the plebiscite represented an early experiment in direct popular input, contrasting with prior successions reliant solely on elite consensus. Lunalilo further advanced by advocating constitutional reforms to diminish monarchical absolutism and enhance legislative and public authority. Upon taking office, he pledged to convene a constitutional convention to address grievances from the 1864 revisions, which had centralized power under , including proposals for expanded and reduced royal veto powers. These intentions aligned with his earlier advocacy in the 1864 convention for limiting elite interference in popular affairs, though his prevented the assembly from materializing before his death on February 3, 1874. His brief tenure thus laid ideological groundwork for subsequent democratic pressures within the kingdom, influencing later elections like that of 1874.

Criticisms of Personal Conduct and Policy Failures

Lunalilo's personal conduct drew criticism for chronic , which historians attribute to exacerbating his health decline and impairing his governance capacity. Placed under legal guardianship at age 24 due to excessive consumption of illicit liquor such as okolehao, Lunalilo's drinking persisted into adulthood, with a documented "drunken spell" on August 17, 1873, from which he briefly recovered before resuming. In September 1873, while intoxicated, he threw a and at Eliza Meek during an altercation at his residence, injuring her and highlighting impulsive behavior linked to alcohol. A physician's assessment in early 1874 warned that his survival from pulmonary hinged on total , yet he continued, contributing to his death on February 3, 1874, at age 39. Administrative shortcomings marked Lunalilo's eight-month reign, as he largely withdrew from active decision-making, delegating reciprocity treaty negotiations and segregation enforcement to ministers, which eroded public trust in royal leadership. Despite campaigning on constitutional reform, he failed to advance 30 proposed amendments to the 1864 Constitution, as his illness prevented convening the . Indecision plagued , exemplified by his six-month delay (January to July 5, 1873) in rejecting a proposed 50-year of Lagoon to the , amid widespread Hawaiian opposition. A pivotal lapse occurred following the , 1873, of the Household Troops over unpaid wages, which Lunalilo mediated but resolved by disbanding the unit entirely, leaving the kingdom without a standing military and exposing vulnerabilities to internal unrest. This decision, while averting immediate violence, underscored perceived weakness in executive authority during an economic downturn driven by declining sugar exports. Overall, these episodes fueled contemporary assessments of ineffective rule, compounded by the brevity of his tenure.

Long-Term Impact on Hawaiian Monarchy

Lunalilo's ascension as the first elected monarch of the , selected unanimously by the legislature on January 8, 1873, following Kamehameha V's death without a designated heir on December 11, 1872, established a precedent for elective succession in the absence of hereditary continuity under the 1852 Constitution. This shift from traditional dynastic inheritance to legislative choice, though rooted in constitutional provisions, introduced political contestation into royal selection, diverging from the Kamehameha dynasty's prior emphasis on bloodlines and designated heirs. His untimely death from on February 3, 1874, without naming a successor or producing an heir, perpetuated this elective mechanism, prompting a second legislative vote that installed David Kalākaua on February 12, 1874, over rival candidate Queen Emma in a 39-6 decision. The ensuing on February 13, 1874, where Emma's supporters stormed the courthouse and clashed with authorities, resulting in deaths and injuries, underscored the factionalism engendered by electoral processes, eroding public confidence in monarchical stability. Over the subsequent decades, the absence of a robust hereditary line—exacerbated by Lunalilo's childless reign and the Kamehameha dynasty's extinction—fostered recurring succession crises that fragmented elite consensus and amplified external influences, particularly from American business interests. While Lunalilo's brief tenure promoted democratic aspirations, such as advocating plebiscites for future rulers, the pattern of elected monarchs without entrenched dynastic legitimacy contributed to institutional vulnerability, culminating in the monarchy's overthrow in amid similar political divisions. This elective precedent, though innovative, prioritized short-term consensus over long-term dynastic resilience, diminishing the monarchy's symbolic and governing authority in a constitutionally limited framework already strained by economic dependencies.

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