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Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster mushroom)

Mycoremediation (from ancient Greek μύκης (mukēs), meaning "fungus", and the suffix -remedium, in Latin meaning 'restoring balance') is a form of bioremediation in which fungi-based remediation methods are used to decontaminate the environment.[1] Fungi have been proven to be a cheap, effective and environmentally sound way for removing a wide array of contaminants from damaged environments or wastewater. These contaminants include heavy metals, organic pollutants, textile dyes, leather tanning chemicals and wastewater, petroleum fuels, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, pharmaceuticals and personal care products, pesticides and herbicides[2] in land, fresh water, and marine environments.

The byproducts of the remediation can be valuable materials themselves, such as enzymes (like laccase),[3] edible or medicinal mushrooms,[4] making the remediation process even more profitable. Some fungi are useful in the biodegradation of contaminants in extremely cold or radioactive environments where traditional remediation methods prove too costly or are unusable.

Pollutants

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Acid mine drainage from a metallic sulfide mine

Fungi, thanks to their non-specific enzymes, are able to break down many kinds of substances including pharmaceuticals and fragrances that are normally recalcitrant to bacteria degradation,[5] such as paracetamol (also known as acetaminophen). For example, using Mucor hiemalis,[6] the breakdown of products which are toxic in traditional water treatment, such as phenols and pigments of wine distillery wastewater,[7] X-ray contrast agents, and ingredients of personal care products,[8] can be broken down in a non-toxic way.

Mycoremediation is a cheaper method of remediation, and it doesn't usually require expensive equipment. For this reason, it is often used in small scale applications, such as mycofiltration of domestic wastewater,[9] and industrial effluent filtration.[10]

According to a 2015 study, mycoremediation can even help with the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) soil biodegradation. Soils soaked with creosote contain high concentrations of PAH and in order to stop the spread, mycoremediation has proven to be the most successful strategy.[11]

Metals

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Pollution from metals is very common, as they are used in many industrial processes such as electroplating, textiles,[12] paint and leather. The wastewater from these industries is often used for agricultural purposes, so besides the immediate damage to the ecosystem it is spilled into, the metals can enter creatures and humans far away through the food chain. Mycoremediation is one of the cheapest, most effective and environmental-friendly solutions to this problem.[13] Many fungi are hyperaccumulators, therefore they are able to concentrate toxins in their fruiting bodies for later removal. This is usually true for populations that have been exposed to contaminants for a long time, and have developed a high tolerance. Hyperaccumulation occurs via biosorption on the cellular surface, where the metals enter the mycelium passively with very little intracellular uptake.[14] A variety of fungi, such as Pleurotus, Aspergillus, and Trichoderma, have proven to be effective in the removal of lead,[15][16] cadmium,[16] nickel,[17][16] chromium,[16] mercury,[18] arsenic,[19] copper,[15][20] boron,[21] iron and zinc[22] in marine environments, wastewater and on land.[15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22]

Not all the individuals of a species are effective in the same way in the accumulation of toxins. The single individuals are usually selected from an older polluted environment, such as sludge or wastewater, where they had time to adapt to the circumstances, and the selection is carried on in the laboratory[citation needed]. A dilution of the water can drastically improve the ability of biosorption of the fungi.[23]

Coprinus comatus (Shaggy ink cap)

The capacity of certain fungi to extract metals from the ground also can be useful for bioindicator purposes, and can be a problem when the mushroom is of an edible variety. For example, the shaggy ink cap (Coprinus comatus), a common edible mushroom found in the Northern Hemisphere, can be a very good bioindicator of mercury.[24] However, as the shaggy ink cap accumulates mercury in its body, it can be toxic to the consumer.[24]

The capacity of metals uptake of mushroom has also been used to recover precious metals from medium. For example, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland reported an 80% recovery of gold from electronic waste using mycofiltration techniques.[25]

Organic pollutants

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Deepwater Horizon oil spill site with visible oil slicks

Fungi are amongst the primary saprotrophic organisms in an ecosystem, as they are efficient in the decomposition of matter. Wood-decay fungi, especially white rot, secrete extracellular enzymes and acids that break down lignin and cellulose, the two main building blocks of plant fiber. These are long-chain organic (carbon-based) compounds, structurally similar to many organic pollutants. They achieve this using a wide array of enzymes. In the case of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), complex organic compounds with fused, highly stable, polycyclic aromatic rings, fungi are very effective[26] in addition to marine environments.[27] The enzymes involved in this degradation are ligninolytic and include lignin peroxidase, versatile peroxidase, manganese peroxidase, general lipase, laccase and sometimes intracellular enzymes, especially the cytochrome P450.[28][29]

Other toxins fungi are able to degrade into harmless compounds include petroleum fuels,[30] phenols in wastewater,[31] polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) in contaminated soils using Pleurotus ostreatus,[32] polyurethane in aerobic and anaerobic conditions,[33] such as conditions at the bottom of landfills using two species of the Ecuadorian fungus Pestalotiopsis,[34] and more.[35]

Pleurotus pulmonarius mushroom on the side of a tree
Pleurotus pulmonarius

The mechanisms of degradation are not always clear,[36] as the mushroom may be a precursor to subsequent microbial activity rather than individually effective in the removal of pollutants.[37]

Pesticides

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Pesticide contamination can be long-term and have a significant impact on decomposition processes and nutrient cycling.[38] Therefore, their degradation can be expensive and difficult. The most commonly used fungi for helping in the degradation of such substances are white rot fungi, which, thanks to their extracellular ligninolytic enzymes like laccase and manganese peroxidase, are able to degrade high quantity of such components. Examples includes the insecticide endosulfan,[39] imazalil, thiophanate methyl, ortho-phenylphenol, diphenylamine, chlorpyrifos[40] in wastewater, and atrazine in clay-loamy soils.[41]

Dyes

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Dyes are used in many industries, like paper printing or textile. They are often recalcitrant to degradation and in some cases, like some azo dyes, carcinogenic or otherwise toxic.[42]

The mechanism by which the fungi degrade dyes is via their lignolytic enzymes, especially laccase, therefore white rot mushrooms are the most commonly used.[citation needed]

Mycoremediation has proven to be a cheap and effective remediation technology for dyes such as malachite green, nigrosin and basic fuchsin with Aspergillus niger and Phanerochaete chrysosporium[43] and Congo red, a carcinogenic dye recalcitrant to biodegradative processes,[44] direct blue 14 (using Pleurotus).[45]

Pentachlorophenol

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Pentachlorophenol (PCP) has been used worldwide as a wood preservative, biocides and for the bleaching of paper or tissues. PCP toxicity and extensive use has placed it among the worst environmental pollutants, and therefore its microbiological degradation to develop bioremediation techniques has been intensively studied.[46][47]

Microorganisms play an important role in the field of environmental science by degrading and transforming PCP into non-toxic or less toxic forms. Naturally how completely and efficiently PCP degradation occurs depends by microorganisms and the environmental conditions.There are numerous studies that focus research efforts on degradation of PCP by pure and mixed cultures of aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms. Conditions that inhibit and enhance degradation, and pathways, intermediates and enzyme systems implicated essentially in PCP degradation especially by bacteria such as Pseudomonas spp.,[48] Flavobacterium spp.,[49] Nocardioides spp., Novosphingobium spp., Desulfitobacterium spp.,[50] Mycobacterium spp.,[51] Sphingomonas sp.,[52] Kokuria spp.,[53] Bacillus spp.,[54] Serratia sp.[55] and Acinetobacter spp.[56] and fungi such as Phanerochaete spp.,[57] Anthracophyllum spp.,[58] Trametes spp.,[59] Mucor spp.,[60] Byssochlamys spp.[61] and Scopulariopsis spp.[62]

Synergy with phytoremediation

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Phytoremediation is the use of plant-based technologies to decontaminate an area.

Most land plants can form a symbiotic relationship with fungi which is advantageous for both organisms. This relationship is called mycorrhiza. Researchers found that phytoremediation is enhanced by mycorrhizae.[63] Mycorrhizal fungi's symbiotic relationships with plant roots help with the uptake of nutrients and the plant's ability to resist biotic and abiotic stress factors such as heavy metals bioavailable in the rhizosphere. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) produce proteins that bind heavy metals and thereby decrease their bioavailability.[64][65] The removal of soil contaminants by mycorrhizal fungi is called mycorrhizoremediation.[66]

Mycorrhizal fungi, especially AMF, can greatly improve the phytoremediation capacity of some plants. This is mostly due to the stress the plants suffer because of the pollutants is greatly reduced in the presence of AMF, so they can grow more and produce more biomass.[67][65] The fungi also provide more nutrition, especially phosphorus, and promote the overall health of the plants. The mycelium's quick expansion can also greatly extend the rhizosphere influence zone (hyphosphere), providing the plant with access to more nutrients and contaminants.[68] Increasing the rhizosphere overall health also means a rise in the bacteria population, which can also contribute to the bioremediation process.[69]

This relationship has been proven useful with many pollutants, such as Rhizophagus intraradices and Robinia pseudoacacia in lead contaminated soil,[70] Rhizophagus intraradices with Glomus versiforme inoculated into vetiver grass for lead removal,[71] AMF and Calendula officinalis in cadmium and lead contaminated soil,[72] and in general was effective in increasing the plant bioremediation capacity for metals,[73][74] petroleum fuels,[75][76] and PAHs.[69] In wetlands AMF greatly promote the biodegradation of organic pollutants like benzene-, methyl tert-butyl ether- and ammonia from groundwater when inoculated into Phragmites australis.[77]

Viability in extreme environments

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Antarctic fungi species such as Metschnikowia sp., Cryptococcus gilvescens, Cryptococcus victoriae, Pichia caribbica and Leucosporidium creatinivorum can withstand extreme cold and still provide efficient biodegradation of contaminants.[78] Due to the nature of colder, remote environments like Antarctica, usual methods of contaminant remediation, such as the physical removal of contaminated media, can prove costly.[79][80] Most species of psychrophilic Antarctic fungi are resistant to the decreased levels of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) production causing reduced energy availability,[81] decreased levels of oxygen due to the low permeability of frozen soil, and nutrient transportation disruption caused by freeze-thaw cycles.[82] These species of fungi are able to assimilate and degrade compounds such as phenols, n-Hexadecane, toluene, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in these harsh conditions.[83][78] These compounds are found in crude oil and refined petroleum.

Some fungi species, like Rhodotorula taiwanensis, are resistant to the extremely low pH (acidic) and radioactive medium found in radioactive waste and can successfully grow in these conditions, unlike most other organisms.[84] They can also thrive in the presence of high concentrations of mercury and chromium.[84] Fungi such as Rhodotorula taiwanensis can possibly be used in the bioremediation of radioactive waste due to their low pH and radiation resistant properties.[84] Certain species of fungi are able to absorb and retain radionuclides such as 137Cs, 121Sr, 152Eu, 239Pu and 241Am.[85][10] In fact, cell walls of some species of dead fungi can be used as a filter that can adsorb heavy metals and radionuclides present in industrial effluents, preventing them from being released into the environment.[10]

Fire management

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Mycoremediation can even be used for fire management with the encapsulation method. This process consists of using fungal spores coated with agarose in a pellet form, which is introduced to a substrate in the burnt forest, breaking down toxins and stimulating growth.[86]

See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Mycoremediation

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Mycoremediation is a form of that utilizes fungi or their enzymatic derivatives to degrade, transform, or sequester environmental pollutants, such as , polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), pesticides, and pharmaceuticals, from contaminated soil, water, and air. This process leverages the extensive mycelial networks and extracellular enzymes of fungi, like white-rot species, to break down complex organic compounds into less harmful substances, offering a natural mechanism for restoration. Coined in the early 2000s by mycologist , mycoremediation has emerged as a sustainable alternative to conventional chemical or physical remediation methods, particularly in addressing persistent pollutants from industrial, agricultural, and urban activities. The primary mechanisms of mycoremediation involve , where fungal biomass passively or actively absorbs contaminants through cell wall binding or intracellular accumulation, and , driven by ligninolytic enzymes such as , manganese , and lignin . These enzymes, evolved for lignocellulose degradation in , non-specifically oxidize a wide range of xenobiotics, including PAHs and dyes, converting them into carbon dioxide, water, or simpler metabolites. For inorganic pollutants like , fungi employ precipitation and sequestration, transforming toxic ions (e.g., or lead) into stable, less bioavailable forms via or reactions. Applications of mycoremediation span diverse contaminated sites, with notable success in treating petroleum hydrocarbons, where species like Pleurotus pulmonarius have removed up to 68% of pollutants in soil over 62 days. White-rot fungi such as Trametes versicolor effectively degrade pharmaceuticals like naproxen within hours and PAHs like phenanthrene at rates exceeding 99%, demonstrating efficacy in wastewater and industrial effluents. Additionally, it has been applied to dye decolorization and pesticide breakdown, with fungi such as Aspergillus niger achieving high removal rates (over 90%) of azo dyes, highlighting its versatility for both in-situ field treatments and ex-situ bioreactor systems. Compared to traditional methods, mycoremediation stands out for its cost-effectiveness, requiring minimal and utilizing inexpensive substrates like to cultivate fungi, while being eco-friendly by avoiding secondary pollution from chemicals. Its adaptability to harsh environments and ability to handle mixed contaminants make it promising for large-scale remediation, though challenges like slow degradation rates and optimization of fungal strains persist. As of 2025, ongoing research focuses on of fungi and integrating mycoremediation with other biotechnologies, including applications in mine and commercial startups, to enhance efficiency and broaden its global adoption.

Fundamentals

Definition and Principles

Mycoremediation is a specialized form of that harnesses the mycelial networks of fungi to degrade, sequester, or transform environmental pollutants across various compartments such as , , and air. This process leverages the extensive hyphal growth of fungi, which allows them to penetrate substrates and access contaminants that may be inaccessible to other organisms. White-rot fungi, such as Phanerochaete chrysosporium, exemplify this capability through their ability to break down complex organic materials, adapting natural decay processes to target xenobiotics. At its core, mycoremediation operates on principles rooted in fungal and biochemistry. Fungal hyphae form intricate networks that extend through particles, sediments, or aqueous media, facilitating direct contact with pollutants and enabling efficient uptake or surface binding. Fungi produce extracellular enzymes that initiate the breakdown of recalcitrant compounds, alongside chelating agents that bind and immobilize metals or other toxins. A key aspect is the non-specific degradation facilitated by ligninolytic pathways, originally evolved for decomposing lignocellulosic materials in wood, which fungi repurpose to handle diverse synthetic pollutants. Various fungal types contribute to mycoremediation, including saprotrophic species that thrive on decaying , mycorrhizal fungi that form symbiotic associations with roots, and endophytic fungi that reside within tissues. Saprotrophic white-rot fungi like are widely used for their robust degradative abilities in contaminated environments. Meanwhile, species, often saprotrophic or endophytic, excel in soil applications due to their competitive growth and tolerance to harsh conditions. As a subset of broader strategies, mycoremediation complements bacterial remediation, which relies on for rapid pollutant breakdown, and , which uses for uptake and stabilization, with fungi offering advantages in handling persistent, hydrophobic compounds. It particularly influences environmental compartments like the , where mycorrhizal interactions enhance nutrient cycling and contaminant sequestration around plant roots. Enzymatic processes in fungi provide a versatile foundation for these interactions, though their specifics vary by application.

History and Key Developments

The concept of using fungi for environmental cleanup traces its roots to 19th-century observations of their role in organic , particularly in wood decay processes documented by early mycologists studying basidiomycetes in forest ecosystems. These natural degradation activities laid the groundwork for later applications, though systematic research into pollutant remediation emerged in the . In the mid-1970s, mycoremediation began formal development with studies on white-rot fungi (WRF) capable of breaking down , a complex analogous to many synthetic pollutants. Pioneering work by T. Kent Kirk and colleagues at the USDA Forest Products Laboratory demonstrated that WRF, such as Phanerochaete chrysosporium, produce extracellular enzymes like lignin peroxidase that degrade and related xenobiotics. By the , Kirk's research extended this to environmental pollutants, recognizing WRF's potential for remediating hazardous organics like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) due to their non-specific enzymatic action. Seminal papers, including Bumpus and Aust (1987) on biodegradation by P. chrysosporium, established WRF as key agents in mycoremediation, with uptake rates showing up to 50% degradation of certain aromatics in lab settings. The 1990s marked a shift to practical applications, with conducting early field trials using oyster mushrooms () to remediate diesel-contaminated soil in , where mycelial networks reduced hydrocarbon levels by over 95% in small-scale tests. These experiments, initiated around 1993 for runoff management and expanded by 1998 in collaboration with the , highlighted fungi's scalability for oil spills. Stamets' advocacy grew through his 2005 book Mycelium Running: How Mushrooms Can Help Save the World, which popularized mycorestoration concepts and cited peer-reviewed data on fungal pollutant uptake, influencing broader adoption. In the 2000s, mycoremediation advanced through disaster response trials, such as the 2007 deployment of oyster mushrooms following the COSCO Busan oil spill in , where they aided in degrading spilled hydrocarbons alongside bacterial methods. The Amazon Mycorenewal Project, launched that year, applied WRF to detoxify petroleum-contaminated soils in , demonstrating field efficacy in tropical environments. By the 2010s, integration into policies occurred, with the U.S. EPA's 2010 report on persistent organic pollutants recommending WRF for of sites contaminated with PAHs and PCBs, reflecting their endorsement in regulatory frameworks. In the , broader bioremediation strategies under the Action Plan began incorporating fungal methods for soil restoration by the late 2010s. Recent developments in the 2020s focus on to enhance efficiency, with /Cas9 enabling targeted edits in to boost production for pollutant degradation. These advances, building on earlier enzymatic insights from , promise optimized strains for complex contaminants, though field validation remains ongoing.

Mechanisms of Action

Biosorption and Bioaccumulation

is a passive, metabolism-independent process by which fungal adsorbs pollutants, particularly , onto its cell surface without degradation. This mechanism primarily involves , complexation, and , facilitated by functional groups on the fungal , such as carboxyl, hydroxyl, , and groups. The components, including and glucans, serve as primary binding sites, where metal ions replace lighter ions like Ca²⁺ or Mg²⁺ or form coordinate bonds, leading to surface under favorable conditions. The efficiency of is highly -dependent, as lower levels protonate binding sites, reducing affinity for positively charged metal ions, while optimal uptake often occurs at 4–6, allowing and electrostatic attraction. In contrast, is an active, metabolism-dependent process that extends beyond surface binding to intracellular uptake and storage of pollutants. Fungi transport metal ions across the via specific transport proteins, such as metal permeases or efflux pumps, followed by sequestration in vacuoles to minimize . For instance, in , heavy metal ions like and lead are conjugated with thiol-containing compounds and stored in vacuoles, enabling tolerance to elevated concentrations while immobilizing the contaminants intracellularly. This process complements but requires energy and can be limited by the fungus's metabolic state and pollutant . Quantitative analysis of these processes often employs sorption isotherms to model equilibrium uptake. The Langmuir isotherm, which assumes monolayer adsorption on homogeneous sites with finite capacity, is widely applied: qe=qmax⁡KLCe1+KLCeq_e = \frac{q_{\max} K_L C_e}{1 + K_L C_e} where qeq_e is the amount of pollutant adsorbed per unit biomass at equilibrium (mg/g), qmax⁡q_{\max} is the maximum adsorption capacity (mg/g), KLK_L is the Langmuir constant (L/mg), and CeC_e is the equilibrium pollutant concentration (mg/L). This model fits well for fungal systems due to the defined binding sites on cell walls. Key influencing factors include fungal biomass dosage, which inversely affects specific uptake by increasing competition for pollutants, and contact time, typically reaching equilibrium within 60–120 minutes for many systems. Representative examples illustrate the efficacy of these mechanisms in aqueous solutions. Rhizopus arrhizus effectively removes and through , achieving uptake capacities of up to 48.6 mg/g for in single-metal systems and enhanced to 96.8 mg/g in the presence of due to synergistic binding effects. Similarly, for alone, capacities reach approximately 38 mg/g under optimized conditions of 5–6 and moderate initial concentrations. These capacities highlight the potential of fungal as a low-cost , scalable for .

Enzymatic Biodegradation

Enzymatic biodegradation represents a core mechanism in mycoremediation, wherein fungi actively metabolize and transform environmental pollutants into less toxic or non-toxic compounds through specialized systems. This process primarily involves extracellular and intracellular enzymes secreted by fungi, particularly white-rot species, which catalyze oxidative reactions to break down complex organic structures. Unlike passive uptake mechanisms, enzymatic action facilitates chemical alteration, often leading to mineralization where pollutants are fully converted to innocuous end products such as and water. Key enzymes driving this biodegradation include laccases, peroxidases, and monooxygenases. Laccases, multicopper oxidases prevalent in basidiomycetes, oxidize phenolic compounds by facilitating the formation of phenoxy radicals through a one-electron transfer process, enabling subsequent or of substrates. Peroxidases, such as manganese peroxidase (MnP) and lignin peroxidase (), utilize to initiate oxidation; for instance, the reaction for MnP begins with: MnP+H2O2→MnP-I+H2O\text{MnP} + \text{H}_2\text{O}_2 \rightarrow \text{MnP-I} + \text{H}_2\text{O} where MnP-I is the compound I intermediate that oxidizes Mn²⁺ to Mn³⁺, which in turn acts as a diffusible oxidant for organic pollutants. Cytochrome P450 monooxygenases perform phase I metabolism intracellularly, introducing oxygen atoms via epoxidation or hydroxylation to increase pollutant solubility and prepare them for further breakdown. These enzymes are particularly effective against recalcitrant xenobiotics due to their broad substrate specificity and ability to function in harsh environments. Recent studies as of 2025 have further elucidated the role of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases in white-rot fungi for degrading recalcitrant pollutants. Degradation pathways typically involve sequential oxidation, ring cleavage, and mineralization, especially for organic pollutants like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). White-rot fungi, such as Phanerochaete chrysosporium, employ these s to cleave aromatic rings in PAHs, transforming them into aliphatic intermediates and ultimately mineralizing them to CO₂ and H₂O under aerobic conditions. This process mimics degradation, allowing fungi to co-metabolize pollutants alongside natural lignocellulosic substrates. Influencing factors include oxygen availability, which is essential for activity and radical formation; nutrient limitation, such as starvation, that upregulates enzyme production by shifting fungal metabolism toward synthesis; and co-metabolism, where the presence of or glucose enhances pollutant breakdown by providing energy and reducing equivalents. Efficiency of enzymatic biodegradation varies with conditions but demonstrates significant pollutant reduction in controlled settings. For example, has been shown to degrade approximately 50% of over 30 days in aqueous cultures under nutrient-limited conditions. Such metrics highlight the potential for reductions in persistent compounds, though optimization of environmental parameters is crucial for practical application.

Applications to Pollutants

Heavy Metals

Heavy metals, including cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), and chromium (Cr), pose significant environmental risks due to their persistence and toxicity, primarily entering ecosystems through mining runoff, industrial effluents, and electroplating activities. These contaminants accumulate in soils and water, disrupting microbial communities and entering food chains, with sources like mining operations contributing up to 80% of global heavy metal pollution in some regions. Mycoremediation offers a sustainable approach to mitigate these pollutants by leveraging fungi's natural tolerance and uptake capabilities, focusing on mobilization and immobilization to reduce bioavailability. Fungal strategies for heavy metal remediation primarily involve , where metal ions bind to functional groups on the fungal , such as carboxyl (-COOH) and (-NH2) groups, enabling rapid passive uptake without energy expenditure. extends this process intracellularly, with metals sequestered in mycelia through and by metallothioneins or . For mercury specifically, certain fungi facilitate volatilization by reducing Hg(II) to volatile elemental Hg(0) via mercury reductase enzymes, promoting gaseous emission and reducing soil retention. These mechanisms are -dependent, with optimal performance often at acidic conditions ( 4-6), and can be enhanced by pretreating to expose more binding sites. Notable case studies highlight the efficacy of these strategies; for instance, fungal has demonstrated high capacities for under optimized conditions. In microcosm studies simulating field conditions, fungal inoculation has reduced bioavailable , lowering concentrations and improving microbial diversity. Fungal tolerance to is quantified by metrics like values, which indicate the concentration causing 50% growth inhibition; for example, exhibits tolerance to Cr up to 600 mg/L. Post-remediation, metal-laden fungal can be regenerated via desorption using dilute acids (e.g., HCl) or chelators like EDTA, allowing reuse in multiple cycles and enhancing economic viability. Recent studies as of 2024 have explored mycoremediation of from industrial , highlighting mechanisms for efficient removal.

Organic Pollutants

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) such as , polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and volatile solvents like (TCE), exhibit high environmental persistence due to their stable chemical structures, leading to long-term soil and water contamination. These compounds resist microbial breakdown and pose significant risks, entering food chains and causing toxicity, carcinogenicity, and endocrine disruption in organisms. Fungi, particularly white-rot species, employ cometabolic degradation pathways to break down these xenobiotics, leveraging ligninolytic enzymes like laccases and peroxidases that nonspecifically oxidize aromatic rings. For example, Trametes versicolor achieves up to 42% degradation of benzopyrene through enzymatic oxidation enhanced by optimal aeration in soil systems. Similarly, Pleurotus ostreatus degrades PCBs via radical-based mechanisms, removing approximately 40% of commercial PCB mixtures like Delor 103 over two months in contaminated soil. In laboratory settings, fungal inoculation in bioreactors has yielded 60-90% removal of hydrocarbons, including PAH fractions, within 30-90 days, influenced by factors such as inoculum density (e.g., 10% ) and levels that promote oxygen-dependent enzymatic activity. Field applications, though less common, mirror these efficiencies in pilot-scale biopiles for hydrocarbon-contaminated sites, where and species enhance degradation under controlled moisture and nutrient conditions. These results underscore the scalability of mycoremediation for hydrocarbon-rich wastes, though site-specific variables like and co-contaminants can modulate outcomes. Degradation often produces less toxic intermediates, such as quinones from PAH ring oxidation (e.g., anthracene-9,10-dione), which are subsequently mineralized to CO₂ and , reducing overall ecotoxicity. These byproducts are routinely monitored using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) for identification and quantification, ensuring complete transformation and minimizing secondary risks.

Pesticides and Dyes

Mycoremediation has shown promise in addressing contamination from synthetic pesticides, particularly organophosphates such as malathion and chlorpyrifos, which are widely used in agriculture but persist in soils and water due to their stability. Fungi degrade these compounds primarily through hydrolysis, where extracellular enzymes like phosphatases cleave the phosphorus-oxygen bonds, leading to less toxic metabolites such as malaoxon from malathion or 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol from chlorpyrifos. For instance, Aspergillus niger degraded approximately 70% of malathion (initial concentration 500 μmol/L) within 5 days under aerobic conditions at 30°C, demonstrating the role of fungal hydrolases in mineralization pathways. Similarly, Aspergillus oryzae achieved up to 75% degradation of chlorpyrifos (concentrations up to 7012 mg/L) in liquid media at 25°C and water activity of 0.98, utilizing the pesticide as a carbon or phosphorus source while maintaining growth rates of 3.6–8 mm/day. Organochlorine pesticides like , known for their bioaccumulative properties and resistance to breakdown, are targeted by fungi via oxidative dechlorination and ring cleavage, often mediated by monooxygenases and laccases that produce hydroxylated intermediates entering the TCA cycle for complete mineralization. White-rot fungi such as chrysosporium and efficiently transform lindane under aerobic conditions, with achieving 100% degradation of lindane (initial 1 mM) in 5 days through sequential dechlorination to pentachlorocyclohexane and less chlorinated isomers. These processes highlight fungi's ability to overcome the chemical stability of organochlorines, though efficiency varies with (optimal 5–7) and availability. In textile and industrial effluents, dyes such as azo compounds (e.g., ) and reactive dyes pose challenges due to their aromatic structures and , but mycoremediation employs fungal oxidoreductases for effective decolorization. Azoreductases perform reductive cleavage of the azo bond (-N=N-) under anaerobic or microaerophilic conditions, yielding colorless aromatic amines, while laccases facilitate oxidative or cleavage in the presence of mediators like ABTS, achieving up to 95% color removal in . For example, decolorized 96% of (0.25 g/L), with activity peaking at 150 U/L, and Ceriporia cerata removed 90% under similar conditions by combined and enzymatic action. Reactive dyes like Reactive Red 31 were decolorized 99% by Aspergillus bombycis through azoreductase-mediated breakdown, reducing effluent as measured by assays. Trametes hirsuta (formerly Coriolus hirsutus), a white-rot , has been applied in pilot-scale expanded-bed reactors for treating dye wastewater, decolorizing synthetic dyes such as by 81% and Poly R-478 by 47% in continuous flow systems, with production enhanced by immobilization on alginate beads. This approach integrates mycoremediation with physical , achieving stable performance over multiple cycles and demonstrating scalability for industrial effluents. Despite these advances, pesticides and dyes often resist microbial attack due to their xenobiotic nature, low bioavailability in aged s, and inhibitory effects on fungal growth, necessitating optimization through fungal consortia that combine complementary enzymes for synergistic degradation. For instance, mixed cultures of and species have improved mineralization by 20–45% compared to monocultures by enhancing intermediate breakdown and reducing toxicity buildup, as seen in microcosms treating and mixtures. Recent research as of 2024 has examined mycoremediation in multi-metal environments using analysis, revealing inhibition challenges in co-contaminant scenarios.

Integrated and Specialized Applications

Synergy with Phytoremediation

Mycorrhizal fungi, particularly arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) such as Glomus species, form symbiotic associations with the roots of most terrestrial plants, extending the reach of the through extraradical hyphae that penetrate deeper layers inaccessible to plant roots alone. In this mutualistic relationship, plants supply the fungi with photosynthates, primarily sugars derived from , while the fungi facilitate the uptake of essential nutrients and water, as well as the handling of contaminants by binding them within fungal structures like glomalin—a that sequesters and reduces their . This enhances overall removal by combining plant-based extraction with fungal immobilization and potential enzymatic degradation, particularly effective for deep-soil contaminants that fungi can access and process before translocation to the plant. In applications of phyto-mycoremediation for heavy metal contamination in mine tailings, ectomycorrhizal fungi have demonstrated substantial improvements in metal uptake; for example, inoculation with ectomycorrhizal fungi increased and accumulation in willow (Salix viminalis) shoots by 53% to 62%, promoting phytostabilization in lead-zinc tailings. Similarly, for organic pollutants in wetlands, AMF such as Glomus intraradices enhance processes, as seen in constructed wetlands where they accelerated the dissipation of s like and by improving plant tolerance and microbial activity in the . These integrated systems leverage the fungi's ability to modify and secrete chelating agents, boosting the efficiency of pollutant degradation and extraction in waterlogged environments. Recent studies as of 2023 have shown synergistic hydrocarbon removal in integrated phyto-mycoremediation systems. A representative case study involves hybrid poplar trees (Populus × canescens) inoculated with the ectomycorrhizal fungus Paxillus involutus, which improved plant growth and lead tolerance under contaminated conditions, enabling higher metal accumulation in roots and stems compared to non-inoculated plants; this association increased root biomass and overall phytostabilization potential. Efficiency in such systems is often evaluated using metrics like the translocation factor (TF), defined as the ratio of metal concentration in the shoot to that in the root: TF=[metal]shoot[metal]root\text{TF} = \frac{[\text{metal}]_{\text{shoot}}}{[\text{metal}]_{\text{root}}} A TF greater than 1 indicates effective upward movement for phytoextraction. In organic pollutant remediation, similar mycorrhizal enhancements have been observed, with studies showing accelerated degradation rates of persistent compounds like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in soil, achieving 2-3 times faster removal when combined with plant hosts. The primary advantages of this plant-fungal synergy include greater plant production, which amplifies the volume of contaminants extracted through harvestable shoots, and reduced via fungal sequestration of metals in extraradical structures, thereby protecting host plants from and enabling survival in otherwise inhospitable soils. This approach not only accelerates remediation but also restores soil structure and fertility over time.

Use in Extreme Environments

Mycoremediation demonstrates particular promise in extreme environments where conventional methods falter due to harsh abiotic conditions, such as low temperatures in soils, in sands, acidity in mine drainage sites (pH <3), high , and elevated levels. Fungi thrive in these settings through specialized adaptations, including production of antifreeze compounds like and polyols for cold tolerance, pigments for shielding, and robust cell walls enabling survival in saline or acidic media. These traits allow fungi to bioaccumulate or biodegrade pollutants without relying on , distinguishing their solo application in barren extremes. In and regions, psychrophilic and psychrotrophic fungi maintain metabolic activity at subzero temperatures through acclimation and adaptations such as unsaturated . For instance, cold-adapted microfungi like and isolated from soils support degradation, aiding remediation of oil spills in areas where bacterial activity is limited. In terrestrial and marine sites, -degrading fungi from genera such as and have been isolated, showing potential for breaking down pollutants introduced by human activities. High-salinity environments, including coastal or industrial saline soils, are addressed by halotolerant fungi like species, which tolerate NaCl concentrations up to 15-20% and achieve 50-70% reduction in (TPH) from diesel contamination over 60 days in microcosm experiments. These fungi produce lipases and laccases that enhance under osmotic stress, with microbial consortia maintaining evenness and richness in treated soils. In acidic mine drainage (AMD) sites with pH below 3, acidophilic fungi such as Acidomyces acidophilus thrive by biosorbing and biotransforming heavy metals like arsenic, reducing As(V) to As(III) and achieving significant uptake via biomass at pH 3.0. This fungus, isolated from AMD tailings, expresses arsenite methyltransferase enzymes up to 25-fold under acidic conditions with arsenic exposure, facilitating methylation and volatilization for removal. Arid desert sands host xerotolerant fungi adapted to low water availability, with diverse communities in Middle Eastern hot deserts exhibiting high biodiversity. Radioactive sites, exemplified by the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone, feature melanized fungi like Cladosporium sphaerospermum that accumulate radiocesium through bioaccumulation, with melanin in cell walls conferring radioresistance and enabling enhanced growth under ionizing radiation. These fungal mats, observed thriving near the reactor, utilize melanin to protect against gamma radiation while concentrating radionuclides like ¹³⁷Cs at ratios 30-270 times higher than in surrounding plants, aiding containment efforts.

Role in Fire Management

Mycorrhizal fungi play a preventive role in fire management by enhancing stability in fire-prone forests, where their extensive hyphal networks bind particles into aggregates, thereby reducing and limiting the spread of flames through improved cohesion and moisture retention. of seedlings with ectomycorrhizal fungi in such areas has been shown to bolster root development and , mitigating wind and even under low cover, with studies demonstrating over twofold reductions in loss compared to non-mycorrhizal controls. This proactive approach supports resilience by facilitating retention and establishment, potentially decreasing fire intensity in vulnerable landscapes. Following wildfires, fungi contribute to remediation by degrading charred polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and other toxins released into the soil, leveraging ligninolytic enzymes to break down these persistent organic compounds. For instance, species like exhibit high efficiency in PAH degradation, achieving nearly complete removal (over 99%) of compounds such as and within 30 days through the production of , lignin peroxidase, and manganese peroxidase enzymes. Pyrophilous fungi, including Geopyxis carbonaria and Pyronema omphalodes, further aid post-fire recovery by rapidly colonizing burned sites and forming mycelial mats that aggregate soil particles, enhancing stability and reducing runoff of contaminants. As of 2024, mycoremediation has been applied post-wildfire to remediate soils and promote recovery in ecosystems like forests. Case studies from the illustrate these applications, such as post-2003 B&B Fire research in Deschutes National Forest, where fungi recolonized within one week of high-intensity burns, supporting ponderosa pine seedling establishment via ectomycorrhizal associations within four months and accelerating overall ecosystem recovery. Inoculation trials with pyrophilous fungi have shown up to 30% increases in aggregation within 10 days, leading to sustained and reduced pollutant leaching, with ectomycorrhizal banks enabling 69-85% rates in regenerating pines six months post-severe like the 2013 . Integration with amendments enhances these effects by providing a substrate for fungal growth, further stabilizing soils and promoting breakdown in burn scars.

Advantages and Challenges

Benefits and Efficacy

Mycoremediation offers significant environmental benefits through its ability to perform treatment, minimizing the need for excavation and transport, which reduces secondary and logistical costs associated with conventional remediation techniques. Unlike chemical methods that often require high-energy inputs and generate hazardous byproducts, mycoremediation relies on fungal , offering a lower-energy alternative to processes like thermal desorption. Evidence of efficacy spans laboratory to field-scale applications, where fungi achieve high removal rates for persistent pollutants such as dyes and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). White-rot fungi like Pleurotus ostreatus and Pleurotus sajor-caju have degraded 80–98% of synthetic dyes and over 90% of PCBs in contaminated media within weeks to months, often reducing toxicity by 10–90% through enzymatic breakdown. This scalability is enhanced by the sustainability of fungal self-propagation; mycelial networks naturally expand in nutrient-rich environments, requiring minimal external inputs for ongoing remediation and promoting long-term pollutant control without repeated interventions. Beyond direct removal, mycoremediation contributes to broader ecological impacts, including enhancement via the use of native fungal that restore soil microbial communities and support plant recolonization in treated areas. Mycelial biomass also facilitates , as fungal hyphae bind and stabilize stocks, potentially increasing sequestration rates in remediated ecosystems. Comparatively, fungi outperform bacterial for lignin-like pollutants due to their extracellular systems, which efficiently degrade complex, high-molecular-weight compounds that process more slowly. Real-world successes include mushroom-based systems in urban brownfields, such as initiatives in , where fungal bioreactors and mycelial applications have transformed contaminated lots into viable green spaces by digesting hydrocarbons and from industrial waste. As of May 2025, mycoremediation has been applied to restore brownfields affected by wildfires in , aiding in the cleanup of scorched, toxic soils.

Limitations and Future Prospects

Despite its potential, mycoremediation faces several limitations that hinder widespread adoption. Degradation rates are often slow, typically spanning weeks to months for substantial pollutant removal, as fungal enzymatic processes require time to colonize substrates and metabolize contaminants like aliphatic hydrocarbons. Fungal activity is highly sensitive to environmental variables, with optimal ranges of 4-6 and temperatures between 20-35°C necessary for efficient function; deviations, such as acidic extremes below 4 or temperatures outside this range, can significantly reduce efficacy. remains a major challenge for large contaminated sites, due to difficulties in maintaining fungal viability, high inoculum costs, and logistical issues in uniform application across expansive areas. Regulatory hurdles further complicate implementation, including the absence of standardized protocols for field deployment and concerns over technology readiness levels, with few patents addressing practical applications. A critical risk involves the potential release of mycotoxins from toxigenic fungi such as and species, which may produce harmful compounds like aflatoxins during degradation under , leading to secondary environmental contamination and health hazards. Mycoremediation is not established or recommended for indoor remediation of toxic molds such as Stachybotrys chartarum (black mold), as it is primarily explored for outdoor soil and water pollution. Introducing other fungi indoors could lead to unpredictable competition, spore proliferation, and new health risks, including exacerbation of allergic reactions or volatile organic compound emissions. Guidelines from health authorities emphasize physical removal and cleaning methods over biological approaches in indoor settings to avoid these complications. Future prospects aim to address these barriers through innovative approaches. Genetic modifications, such as overexpressing enzymes in fungal strains, show promise for accelerating degradation of recalcitrant pollutants like plastics and organics by enhancing extracellular enzyme production. Emerging trends in the include the development of AI-optimized microbial consortia to predict and refine fungal-bacterial interactions for targeted remediation, as well as nano-fungal hybrids that combine fungal with nanoparticles to improve and speed of heavy metal sequestration. Key research gaps persist, particularly in long-term field monitoring to assess sustained ecological impacts and the on fungal efficacy, such as altered regimes disrupting degradation processes. Addressing these through integrated studies will be essential for advancing mycoremediation toward practical, resilient applications.

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