Pakhtas

The Pakthas (Sanskrit: पक्थास, Pakthās) were an ancient Indo-Aryan tribe inhabiting the northern borderlands of the Indian subcontinent during the early Vedic period.^[1] They are primarily known from the Rigveda, particularly Mandala 7, where they are described as one of the tribes forming a confederacy against King Sudas of the Bharata clan in the Battle of the Ten Kings (Dāśarājña).^[2] This pivotal inter-tribal conflict, fought along the Parushni River (modern Ravi), resulted in the defeat of the Pakthas and their allies, marking a consolidation of Bharata power in the Punjab region.^[1] Scholars identify the Pakthas with the Pactyans (Pakthas) referenced by Herodotus in the 5th century BCE, suggesting continuity in the tribal nomenclature of the northwestern frontier areas corresponding to parts of modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan.^[1] Their role underscores the dynamic tribal alliances and rivalries characteristic of Vedic society, with limited additional archaeological or textual evidence beyond these Vedic allusions.^[2]

Etymology and Terminology

Name Origins and Variants

The term Pakthas (or Pakhtas) originates from the Vedic Sanskrit nominative plural Pakthāḥ (पक्थास्), denoting an ancient Indo-Aryan tribe mentioned exclusively in the Rigveda as adversaries of the Trtsu-Bharata king Sudās during the Dasarajna, or Battle of the Ten Kings, circa 1400–1200 BCE.^[3] This reference occurs in Rigveda 7.18.7, listing the Pakthas alongside the Bhalānas, Alinas, Sivas, and Viṣāṇins as part of a confederacy opposing the Bharatas on the Ravi River (Paruṣṇī). The singular Paktha (पक्थ) may refer to a eponymous king or leader of the tribe, as suggested by contextual Vedic usage where tribal names often personalize leadership.^[4] No established etymology for Paktha appears in Vedic lexicons or philological studies, with the term treated as a proper ethnonym lacking derivational transparency from known Sanskrit roots like pac (to cook or ripen), which would yield unrelated semantic fields.^[3] Scholarly interpretations avoid speculative folk etymologies, emphasizing instead its role as one of several non-Indra-worshipping peripheral tribes in early Vedic society, possibly indicating cultural or ritual distinctions from central Bharata groups. Transliteration variants include Pakthās in standard IAST (International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration) and anglicized forms like Pakthas or Pakhtas in modern scholarship, reflecting phonetic shifts in post-Vedic Prakrit and regional pronunciations.^[3] In classical Greek accounts, Herodotus (circa 484–425 BCE) describes Paktyans (Πακτύανς) as a tributary people in the eastern satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire, potentially cognate with the Vedic Pakthas based on geographic overlap in present-day eastern Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan, though direct continuity remains unproven due to linguistic divergence. Claims linking Pakthas to modern Pashtuns (self-designated Pakhtuns) via the ethnonym rely on phonetic resemblance but lack genetic, archaeological, or textual substantiation, as Pashtun paṣtūn derives from Middle Iranian pāxtūn or parsāwa (related to "heel" or "compact group"), distinct from Vedic Indo-Aryan morphology.^[5]

Linguistic Interpretations

The term Pakthas (Sanskrit: पक्थास्) occurs in the Rigveda, specifically in hymns describing the Dasarajna battle (RV 7.18.7–19), where it denotes a tribal group allied against the Bharata king Sudas, alongside the Bhalanas, Alinas, and others.^[4] The name is also associated with a king named Paktha, portrayed as a beneficiary of divine favor from the Ashvins and Indra in Vedic lore.^[4] Linguistic analysis of Paktha lacks a consensus etymology within Sanskrit, with no clear derivation from established roots like pac ("to cook") or positional terms, though some interpretations suggest it reflects a descriptive tribal identifier tied to regional or ecological features in the northwestern frontier.^[6] A key cross-linguistic correlation appears in Herodotus' Histories (c. 430 BCE), which references the Paktyans (Greek: Πアクτυικη, Paktyikē) as inhabitants of a territory north of "other Indians" and bordering the Indus, within the eastern satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire; this is often equated with Pakthas due to phonetic resemblance (Paktha > Paktyan) and shared geography in Arachosia or modern Paktia.^[7] Interpretations linking Pakthas to modern Pashtuns (self-designated Pakhtuns) emphasize name continuity, positing Pakthas as proto-Pashtuns based on enduring presence in southeastern Afghanistan and adjacent areas.^[8] However, this faces challenges from phonological evolution and language families: Pashto, the Pashtun tongue, is Eastern Iranian, featuring developments like θ > sht absent in Vedic Indo-Aryan, suggesting later Iranianization via admixture with eastern Iranian nomads (e.g., Sakas) rather than direct descent.^[9] The Pashtun ethnonym likely derives from Old Iranian pārsa-wa- or parθ-wa-, cognate with "Persian" and possibly meaning "possessing horsemen" or "tribal frontiersmen," sharing Indo-Iranian roots with Vedic terms like párśu ("rib" or "side," extended to "tribal group") but not a verbatim match to Paktha.^[10] These discrepancies indicate cultural persistence amid linguistic shifts, with Pakthas representing an early Indo-Aryan layer overlaid by Iranian elements by the Achaemenid era.

Historical References

Vedic Texts

The Pakthas are referenced in the Rigveda, the earliest of the Vedic texts, as participants in the Dāśarājña (Battle of the Ten Kings), a conflict described in Mandala 7. In this battle, a confederacy of tribes opposed King Sudās of the Trtsu-Bharata lineage, with the Pakthas allied alongside the Bhalānas, Alinas, Sivas, and Visanins.^[11] The hymn attributes victory to Indra's intervention on behalf of the Trtsus, emphasizing the Pakthas' role in the enemy coalition that sought to overwhelm Sudās's forces near the Ravi River.^[11] A secondary allusion appears in Rigveda 10.61.1, where Indra is said to have acted "for Paktha," rescuing parents and confronting seven priests (hotṛs), possibly indicating aid to a Paktha figure or group amid ritual or familial strife.^[12] This verse, part of a hymn to the Viśvedevas, contrasts with the martial context of Mandala 7 by highlighting divine favor toward the Pakthas in a non-combat scenario.^[12] No explicit mentions of the Pakthas occur in later Vedic texts such as the Sāmaveda, Yajurveda, or Atharvaveda, suggesting their prominence was confined to early Rigvedic tribal narratives.^[13]

Classical Greek Accounts

Herodotus (c. 484–c. 425 BCE), in his Histories composed around 430 BCE, provides the sole surviving Classical Greek account of the Pactyans (Greek: Πάκτυες), a people whose name and eastern location have led some scholars to tentatively identify them with the Vedic Pakthas. In Book VII, describing the multinational army assembled by Xerxes I for the invasion of Greece in 480 BCE, Herodotus notes that the Pactyans contributed contingents equipped with skin cloaks, indigenous bows, and daggers, commanded by Artyntes son of Ithamatres.^[14] This depiction portrays them as a tribal group from the fringes of the Achaemenid Empire, emphasizing their distinctive material culture over numerical strength or tactical role. Herodotus further references the Pactyans in connection with the Sagartians, a nomadic tribe who spoke Persian but adopted a mixed dress style—"half Persian, half Pactyan"—indicating cultural proximity or influence in attire and possibly weaponry.^[15] The Sagartians, like the Pactyans, favored light cavalry tactics with lassos and daggers, suggesting shared pastoral or semi-nomadic practices among these eastern peripherals.^[14] The geographical context implies the Pactyans inhabited regions east of core Persian territories, likely corresponding to parts of modern Afghanistan or northwestern Pakistan, as their grouping aligns with Arachosia and other satrapies bordering India.^[13] Indologist Heinrich Zimmer (1879) explicitly connected the Pactyans to the Pakthas of Rigvedic hymns, positing linguistic and locational continuity, though this remains a hypothesis reliant on phonetic similarity (Pakthas/Paktyes) and shared northwestern Indo-Iranian habitat rather than direct evidence.^[13] No other Classical Greek authors, such as Strabo or Ptolemy, provide independent corroboration of the Pactyans, limiting the corpus to Herodotus' ethnographic observations derived from Persian administrative reports and oral traditions.

Geography and Settlement

Inferred Regions from Sources

The Pakthas appear in Rigvedic Mandala 7 (hymns 18.7 and related) as allies in the coalition opposing King Sudas of the Trtsus during the Dasarajna battle, fought on the Parushni River (modern Ravi) in the Punjab region around 1400–1200 BCE.^[16] Their grouping with tribes such as the Alinas, Bhalanas, Sivas, and Visanins implies origins west of the Indus River, distinguishing them from core Punjab-based participants like the Purus and Anus.^[17] Inferences from the Vedic corpus place the Pakthas in frontier zones northwest of the Vedic heartland, likely encompassing the Hindu Kush foothills and areas akin to modern Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan, with extensions into eastern Afghanistan; the Alinas' association with Kafiristan (Nuristan) supports this northwestern positioning.^[17] Some analyses, emphasizing textual geography, argue for an initial settlement within greater Punjab before westward shifts correlating with later Pashtun habitats in southern Afghanistan and northwest Pakistan.^[16] Classical sources provide corroborative but debated linkages: Herodotus (5th century BCE) describes Pactyans inhabiting the eastern fringes of Achaemenid Arachosia satrapy, a territory spanning southeastern Afghanistan and adjacent Balochistan-Pakistan borderlands, potentially reflecting continuity or migration from Vedic Pakthas.^[13] These regions align with arid, mountainous terrains suitable for pastoral tribes, though direct ethnic equations remain speculative absent archaeological corroboration.^[16]

Environmental and Cultural Context

The Pakhtas occupied territories in the northwestern periphery of the Vedic world, inferred from textual references to encompass areas akin to ancient Gandhara and Paktyike, spanning modern northwestern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan.^[18][19] This positioning aligns with their participation in the Dasarajna battle, where they allied with tribes from distant western locales against the Bharatas on the Parushni River around 1400-1200 BCE.^[16] Environmentally, the region featured rugged terrain of the Sulaiman Range and Hindu Kush foothills, interspersed with fertile alluvial valleys along the Kabul and upper Indus River systems.^[20] Semi-arid climates with seasonal monsoons supported pastoral nomadism, emphasizing cattle rearing, horse breeding, and transhumance between highlands and lowlands, integral to the subsistence economy of early Indo-Aryan groups.^[21] Such settings facilitated mobility for warfare and raids, as depicted in Vedic hymns portraying tribal conflicts over resources like water and livestock. Culturally, the Pakhtas adhered to proto-Vedic Indo-Aryan traditions, evidenced by their involvement in confederate warfare and implied participation in ritual practices common to Rigvedic society, including invocations to deities like Indra for victory in battle.^[22] Their opposition to Sudas suggests adherence to similar sacrificial and poetic conventions, though as adversaries in the texts, specific hymns from their perspective are absent; later Greek accounts of Pactyans describe tributary roles under Achaemenid rule, hinting at hierarchical tribal structures without contradicting Vedic pastoral-warrior ethos.^[13] Archaeological correlates remain elusive, with no distinct material culture uniquely attributable, but regional continuity in bronze-age settlements underscores a semi-nomadic lifestyle adapted to frontier ecologies.^[23]

Role in Ancient Warfare

Participation in Dasarajna

The Pakthas formed part of the tribal confederacy that opposed King Sudas of the Bharata (Trtsu) tribe in the Dasarajna, a pivotal conflict described in Rigveda Mandala 7. This battle, also known as the Battle of the Ten Kings, involved a coalition of ten Aryan kings and their allied tribes challenging Sudas' authority, likely over territorial and ritual dominance in the Punjab region. The Pakthas are explicitly named in Rigveda 7.18.8 as advancing with other groups, including the Bhalanas, Alinas, Vishanins, and Shivas, in an assault against the Bharatas: "The Pakthas, the Bhalānas, calling the Alinas, the Viṣāṇins, and the Śivas came on."^[24][25] The engagement unfolded along the Parushni River (modern Ravi), where the confederacy, including the Pakthas, attempted to ford the waters to confront Sudas' forces. Hymns attribute the Bharata victory to divine intervention by Indra, who reportedly unleashed a flood to drown many of the attackers, while Sudas' priest Vasishtha invoked supportive rituals contrasting with the rival Vishvamitra's efforts for the coalition. The Pakthas, aligned with tribes like the Purus, Druhyus, and Matsyas, suffered defeat alongside the rest, as evidenced by references to the coalition's routed warriors and the Bharatas' seizure of cattle and lands.^[26][27] This participation underscores the Pakthas' role in inter-tribal Vedic warfare, positioning them as adversaries to the emerging Bharata hegemony rather than core allies, with no indications of their independent leadership among the ten kings. Post-battle, the defeat fragmented the confederacy, enhancing Bharata influence and indirectly shaping later Kuru polity formation, though specific Paktha casualties or territorial losses remain unquantified in the texts.^[24]

Alliances and Oppositions

In the Dāśarājña (Battle of the Ten Kings), described in Rigveda Mandala 7, the Pakthas participated as part of a confederacy opposing King Sudās of the Tr̥tsu-Bharata tribe, allying with several neighboring groups to challenge Bharata dominance along the Paruṣṇī River around 1400–1200 BCE.^[11][25] Their coalition included the Bhalānas, Alinas, Śivas, and Viṣāṇins, as invoked in hymns praising Indra's aid to Sudās against these advancing foes who sought to overwhelm the Tr̥tsus through numerical superiority.^[11][24] This alliance reflects tribal rivalries over riverine territories and resources in the northwest, with the Pakthas positioned beyond the Sindhu River, contributing warriors to the broader anti-Bharata front led by figures like Kavi Cāyamāna.^[28] Opposition to the Pakthas centered on the Tr̥tsu-Bharatas under Sudās, supported by priest Vasiṣṭha and divine intervention attributed to Indra, who reportedly shattered the confederacy's unity and drowned many in the river, marking a decisive defeat for the allied tribes.^[11][24] The Rigvedic accounts portray the Pakthas and their partners as aggressors invoking prior grievances, possibly over cattle raids or territorial encroachments, though the texts emphasize Bharata victory as a consolidation of Vedic Aryan power rather than mutual alliances beyond this conflict.^[27] No independent records detail Paktha engagements outside this battle, limiting evidence to Vedic hymns that frame them as peripheral yet committed opponents in a pivotal intra-Indo-Aryan struggle.^[24]

Theories of Ethnic Identity

Indo-Aryan Tribal Classification

The Pakthas are attested in the Rigveda (7.18.7) as a tribal group allied with the Bhalanas, Alinas, and others in the confederacy opposing King Sudas of the Trtsu-Bharatas during the Battle of the Ten Kings (Dasarajna), dated circa 1400–1200 BCE based on stratigraphic analysis of Vedic texts.^[29] This battle, detailed across hymns 7.18, 7.33, and 7.83, involved intra-tribal rivalries among groups sharing Vedic cultural and linguistic elements, with the Pakthas positioned among northwestern hill tribes.^[29] In scholarly classifications, the Pakthas are frequently grouped with other Rigvedic Aryan tribes, such as the Gandharas and Visanins, reflecting shared Indo-Aryan linguistic and ritual frameworks evident in the text's Sanskrit nomenclature and geopolitical references.^[29] Their role as adversaries in a conflict resolved through invocation of Indra and Varuna—deities central to Indo-Aryan pantheons—suggests cultural affinity rather than stark ethnic divergence from core Vedic polities like the Bharatas or Purus.^[29] This aligns with interpretations viewing Dasarajna as emblematic of competitions within an expanding Indo-Aryan tribal network in the Punjab-Haryana region, rather than clashes with exogenous non-Aryan forces.^[29] Alternative analyses, however, challenge a strictly Indo-Aryan designation, positing the Pakthas as proto-Iranian based on etymological links to "Paštu" (Pashtun) and their peripheral northwestern locale, potentially indicating a branch diverging toward Iranian linguistic traits contemporaneous with Vedic Indo-Aryan differentiation around 2000–1500 BCE.^[30] Such views emphasize name resemblances (e.g., Paktha to Pakhtoon) and associations with tribes like the Parśu, arguing for an early Indo-Iranian schism where Pakthas aligned against Vedic centralizers.^[30] These hypotheses remain contested, as direct linguistic evidence from Paktha speech is absent, and Vedic inclusion implies at minimum bilingual or culturally syncretic ties to Indo-Aryan speakers.^[30][29]

Links to Pashtun Ethnogenesis

The hypothesis linking the ancient Pakthas to Pashtun ethnogenesis originates from phonetic resemblances between "Paktha" in Vedic texts and the self-designation "Pakhtun" used by Pashtuns, alongside approximate geographical overlap in northwestern regions. In the Rigveda (Mandala 7, Hymn 18), the Pakthas appear as allies of the confederacy opposing King Sudas in the Dasarajna battle, dated circa 1500–1200 BCE, with their territory inferred near the Kubhā (Kabul) and Kramu (Kurram) rivers, aligning with fringes of modern Pashtunistan.^[31] This interpretation posits the Pakthas as an early Indo-Iranian group whose descendants contributed to Pashtun formation through migrations and cultural continuity in the Hindu Kush and Sulaiman Mountains.^[32] Classical accounts reinforce tentative connections; Herodotus (5th century BCE) describes Pactyans (Paktues) as a tribal group in Arachosia and Gedrosia, regions encompassing eastern Afghanistan and western Pakistan, where Pashtuns predominate today. Some analyses suggest these Pactyans represent a Hellenized reference to Pakthas or related peoples, implying persistence of the ethnonym over centuries.^[33] Proponents, including certain genealogical studies, argue this supports an indigenous Indo-Iranian core to Pashtun identity predating Achaemenid or Hellenistic influences, with the Pakht- root potentially deriving from ancient tribal nomenclature tied to pastoralist warriors.^[34] However, such claims often stem from regional historiographies prone to anachronistic projections, lacking primary epigraphic or numismatic evidence of unbroken lineage. Linguistic evidence complicates direct descent, as Pashto belongs to the Eastern Iranian language family, diverging from the Indo-Aryan dialect of the Rigveda after the Indo-Iranian split around 2000 BCE, suggesting Pakthas were likely proto-Indo-Aryan speakers whose Iranianized successors may have absorbed local elements.^[32] Genetic studies indicate Pashtuns carry high frequencies of R1a1a haplogroups (up to 50% in some clans), consistent with Bronze Age steppe migrations shared by Indo-Iranians, but no unique markers tie them specifically to Vedic-era Pakthas amid broader admixture from Central Asian and South Asian sources.^[35] Critics highlight the absence of post-Vedic textual continuity for "Pakthas" until modern revivals, attributing Pashtun ethnogenesis more to medieval consolidations involving Saka, Hephthalite, and Ghilzai tribal fusions under Islamic rule, rendering the ancient link speculative rather than causal.^[36] Scholarly consensus views it as a plausible but unproven etymological parallel, with stronger anchors in Iranian nomadic traditions than isolated Vedic mentions.^[34]

Alternative Hypotheses

Scholars have proposed that the Pakthas may represent proto-Iranian groups that diverged early from the Indo-Iranian linguistic continuum, allying with other northwestern tribes like the Parśu (linked to later Persians) in the Battle of the Ten Kings (c. 1400–1200 BCE), as described in Rigveda 7.18. This hypothesis emphasizes their peripheral position relative to core Vedic territories in the Punjab, suggesting cultural and linguistic shifts toward Iranic branches due to isolation in regions like the Sulaiman Range or eastern Afghanistan.^[37] A related identification links the Pakthas to the Pactyans (Paktues) enumerated by Herodotus in the fifth century BCE as inhabitants of Arachosia and neighboring areas within the Achaemenid fifteenth satrapy, who contributed 170 talents in ground corn as tribute annually. This connection posits the Pakthas as precursors to broader eastern Iranian pastoralists rather than specific modern ethnicities, with archaeological continuity inferred from Gandharan and Swat Valley sites showing Iron Age settlements predating Achaemenid control (c. 500 BCE). Critics note phonetic similarities (Paktha/Paktyai) but argue for independent developments, as Pactyans appear integrated into Ariana without direct Vedic ritual references.^[38] Etymological alternatives derive "Paktha" from Proto-Indo-European *pénkʷe ("five"), as analyzed by philologist Karl Hoffmann, potentially denoting a "fifth" confederate group or association with Punjab's five rivers (paruṣṇī-linked hydrology in Rigveda 7.18), rather than an endonymic ethnic marker. This descriptive interpretation undermines genealogical claims, portraying the Pakthas as a transient alliance of hill tribes (alongside Bhalānas and Alinas) rather than a cohesive ethnos, with their post-Rigvedic absence indicating dissolution into neighboring populations by 1000 BCE.^[38][29]

Scholarly Debates and Evidence

Supporting Archaeological and Genetic Data

Archaeological investigations in regions associated with the Pakthas, such as the Swat Valley in northwestern Pakistan and adjacent areas of eastern Afghanistan, reveal the Gandhara Grave Culture, spanning approximately 1400–800 BCE. This protohistoric complex features terracotta urns, iron implements, and burial practices indicative of pastoralist societies with emerging Indo-Aryan influences, including grey ware pottery and horse remains consistent with Vedic-era material assemblages.^[39] These sites, including cemeteries at Timur Garha and Loe Shalmar, demonstrate cultural continuity from late Bronze Age to Iron Age occupations, aligning temporally with Rigvedic references to Pakthas in the northwest frontier.^[40] Further support derives from surveys in the Kurram Valley, where prehistoric settlements and Iron Age artifacts suggest long-term habitation by tribal groups in terrain matching textual descriptions of Paktha territories. While no inscriptions directly name the Pakthas, the spatial and chronological overlap with Vedic tribal conflicts, such as the Dasarajna around 1400–1200 BCE, provides circumstantial corroboration for their presence as a distinct eastern Indo-Aryan entity.^[41] Genetic analyses of ancient DNA from Swat Valley burials (circa 1200–800 BCE) indicate admixture between indigenous Indus Periphery-related ancestry and Steppe Middle to Late Bronze Age components, with the latter contributing 10–20% to the genomes and carrying Y-haplogroup R1a-Z93 subclades linked to Indo-Iranian expansions.^[42] This Steppe influx, dated post-1500 BCE, aligns with linguistic evidence for Proto-Indo-Aryan speakers in the region, supporting the Pakthas as participants in early Vedic ethnogenesis. Modern Pashtun populations, hypothesized descendants, retain elevated R1a1a-M17 frequencies (up to 52%) and autosomal Steppe ancestry profiles comparable to these ancient samples, indicating genetic continuity despite later admixtures.^[43][44] Such markers distinguish Pashtuns from neighboring groups while affirming shared Indo-Iranian heritage, though direct Paktha-specific aDNA remains absent.

Criticisms of Ancestry Claims

Scholars have raised several objections to claims positing the Rigvedic Pakthas as direct ancestors of modern Pashtuns, emphasizing the tenuous nature of the evidence. The primary linkage rests on phonetic resemblance between "Paktha" (as in Rigveda 7.18.7, c. 1500–1200 BCE) and "Pakhtun," but this is often dismissed as speculative folk etymology lacking philological rigor, given the prevalence of similar-sounding tribal names across ancient Indo-Iranian contexts without implying continuity.^[27] Linguistically, Pashto is an Eastern Iranian language exhibiting distinct innovations, such as rhotacism and specific phonological shifts, diverging from the Indo-Aryan Vedic Sanskrit in which the Pakthas are named; the Indo-Iranian schism predates Rigvedic composition, rendering implausible a straightforward inheritance without unattested language replacement or convergence.^[45] If the Pakthas represented a proto-Iranian faction among Sudas's adversaries—potentially aligned with migrating Druhyu or Anu groups westward—this might account for regional overlap in northwest South Asia, yet no inscriptions or toponyms bridge the gap to Pashto's attested features, which align more closely with later Scythian/Saka dialects emerging post-1000 BCE.^[32] Historical discontinuity further undermines ancestry assertions: no continuous textual record connects Bronze Age tribal conflicts to Pashtun confederations, which coalesce in medieval Islamic sources (e.g., 10th–15th centuries CE) via legendary genealogies like Qais Abdur Rashid's Israelite or Arab descent, reflecting identity construction amid Turkic and Persian influences rather than Vedic holdovers. Classical references, such as Herodotus's Pactyans (c. 440 BCE) in Arachosia, may echo the name but describe unrelated groups under Achaemenid administration, with uncertain linguistic affiliation.^[46] Genetic analyses reveal Pashtuns' ancestry as a composite of steppe-derived Indo-Iranian (high R1a-Z93), South Asian, and minor East Asian components, consistent with admixture from Iranic nomads and locals but offering no distinctive signature tying to isolated Rigvedic tribes like the Pakthas, whose material culture remains archaeologically indistinct amid Gandhara grave culture overlaps (c. 1200–800 BCE). Critics attribute persistent claims to ethnonationalist motivations seeking pre-Islamic antiquity, overlooking Pashtun formation as a dynamic tribal synthesis rather than linear descent.^[32][46]