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Pronucleus
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The process of fertilization in the ovum of a mouse

A pronucleus (pl.: pronuclei) denotes the nucleus found in either a sperm or egg cell during the process of fertilization. The sperm cell undergoes a transformation into a pronucleus after entering the egg cell but prior to the fusion of the genetic material of both the sperm and egg. In contrast, the egg cell possesses a pronucleus once it becomes haploid, not upon the arrival of the sperm cell. Haploid cells, such as sperm and egg cells in humans, carry half the number of chromosomes present in somatic cells, with 23 chromosomes compared to the 46 found in somatic cells. It is noteworthy that the male and female pronuclei do not physically merge, although their genetic material does. Instead, their membranes dissolve, eliminating any barriers between the male and female chromosomes, facilitating the combination of their chromosomes into a single diploid nucleus in the resulting embryo, which contains a complete set of 46 chromosomes.

The presence of two pronuclei serves as the initial indication of successful fertilization, often observed around 18 hours after insemination, or intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) during in vitro fertilization. At this stage, the zygote is termed a two-pronuclear zygote (2PN). Two-pronuclear zygotes transitioning through 1PN or 3PN states tend to yield poorer-quality embryos compared to those maintaining 2PN status throughout development,[1] and this distinction may hold significance in the selection of embryos during in vitro fertilization (IVF) procedures.

History

[edit]

The pronucleus was discovered the 1870s microscopically using staining techniques combined with microscopes with improved magnification levels. The pronucleus was originally found during the first studies on meiosis. Edouard Van Beneden published a paper in 1875 in which he first mentions the pronucleus by studying the eggs of rabbits and bats. He stated that the two pronuclei form together in the center of the cell to form the embryonic nucleus. Van Beneden also found that the sperm enters into the cell through the membrane in order to form the male pronucleus. In 1876, Oscar Hertwig did a study on sea urchin eggs because the eggs of sea urchins are transparent, so it allowed for much better magnification of the egg. Hertwig confirmed Van Beneden's finding of the pronucleus, and also found the formation of the female pronucleus involves the formation of polar bodies.[2]

Formation

[edit]

The female pronucleus is the female egg cell once it has become a haploid cell, and the male pronucleus forms when the sperm enters into the female egg. While the sperm develops inside of the male testes, the sperm does not become a pronucleus until it decondenses quickly inside of the female egg.[3] When the sperm reaches the female egg, the sperm loses its outside membrane as well as its tail. The sperm does this because the membrane and the tail are no longer needed by the female ovum. The purpose of the cell membrane was to protect the DNA from the acidic vaginal fluid, and the purpose of the tail of the sperm was to help move the sperm cell to the egg cell. The formation of the female egg is asymmetrical, while the formation of the male sperm is symmetrical. Typically in a female mammal, meiosis starts with one diploid cell and becomes one haploid ovum and typically two polar bodies, however one may later divide to form a third polar body.[4] In a male, meiosis starts with one diploid cell and ends with four sperm.[5] In mammals, the female pronucleus starts in the center of the egg before fertilization. When the male pronucleus is formed, after the sperm cell reaches the egg, the two pronuclei migrate towards each other. However, in brown alga Pelvetia, the egg pronucleus starts in the center of the egg before fertilization and remain in the center after fertilization. This is because the egg cells of brown alga Pelvetia, the egg pronucleus is anchored down by microtubules so only the male pronucleus migrates towards the female pronucleus.[6]

Calcium concentration

[edit]

The calcium concentration within the egg cell cytoplasm has a very important role in the formation of an activated female egg. If there is no calcium influx, the female diploid cell will produce three pronuclei, rather than only one. This is due to the failure of release of the second polar body.[7]

Combination of male and female pronuclei

[edit]

In sea urchins, the formation of the zygote starts with the fusion of both the inner and outer nuclei of the male and female pronuclei. It is unknown if one of the pronuclei start the combination of the two, or if the microtubules that help the dissolution of membranes commence the action.[8] The microtubules that make the two pronuclei combine come from the sperm's centrosome. There is a study that strongly supports that microtubules are an important part of the fusion of the pronuclei. Vinblastine is a chemotherapy drug that affects both the plus and minus ends of microtubules.[9] When vinblastine is added to the ovum, there is a high rate of pronuclear fusion failure. This high rate of pronuclear fusion failure highly suggests that microtubules play a major role in the fusion of the pronucleus.[10] In mammals, the pronuclei only last in the cell for about twelve hours, due to the fusion of the genetic material of the two pronuclei within the egg cell. Many studies of pronuclei have been in the egg cells of sea urchins, where the pronuclei are in the egg cell for less than an hour. The main difference between the process of fusion of genetic materials in mammals versus sea urchins is that in sea urchins, the pronuclei go directly into forming a zygote nucleus. In mammalian egg cells, the chromatin from the pronuclei form chromosomes that merge onto the same mitotic spindle. The diploid nucleus in mammals is first seen at the two-cell stage, whereas in sea urchins it is first found at the zygote stage.[3] Point to Note: In 1926 students at The KTH Royal Institute of Technology in sweden found that sperm cells takes about the equivalent of 8-12 years for a single sperm cell nutrients to regenerate.

References

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Pronucleus

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A pronucleus is the haploid nucleus derived from either the or following fertilization, prior to the fusion of their genetic material to form the diploid nucleus. In this stage, the male pronucleus forms when the 's highly condensed nucleus decondenses after entering the , while the female pronucleus arises from the 's nucleus after completion of II. Each pronucleus contains 23 chromosomes and is enclosed by a , representing a critical intermediate in the restoration of diploidy during reproduction. The formation of pronuclei is triggered by specific biochemical changes post-fertilization. In sea urchins, the chromatin decondenses through the of sperm-specific histones. In mammals, decondensation is facilitated by factors from the egg such as , which reduces bonds in protamines, followed by the replacement of protamines with histones from the , allowing the male pronucleus to expand and mature over several hours. The female pronucleus, meanwhile, forms as the extrudes the second , ensuring its haploid state. These transformations prepare the genetic material for syngamy, the union of paternal and maternal genomes. Pronuclear migration involves cytoskeletal dynamics that bring the two nuclei into close proximity. In sea urchins, the sperm organizes into an aster that contacts and pulls the pronucleus toward the male, with migration completing in under an hour. Mammalian zygotes exhibit a slower process, lasting about 12 hours, driven by astral from the and actin-based movements, during which often begins within the pronuclei. This migration ensures proper alignment for genetic fusion and is essential for embryonic development; disruptions can lead to or developmental arrest. The fusion of pronuclei, or syngamy, culminates in the formation of the . In some like sea urchins, the pronuclear envelopes break down, allowing direct merging of the haploid nuclei into a single diploid nucleus. In mammals, including humans, the pronuclei approach each other but do not fully fuse; instead, their envelopes interdigitate, and the chromosomes condense and align on a shared mitotic spindle during the first cleavage division, resulting in diploid daughter cells. This process typically occurs in the ampullary region of the in humans. Abnormalities in pronuclear formation or migration, such as asynchronous development, are associated with and are key indicators in assisted reproductive technologies like fertilization.

Definition and Characteristics

General Definition

A pronucleus is the haploid nucleus derived from either the or during fertilization, containing a single set of chromosomes that prepares the parental genetic material for fusion into the diploid nucleus. In humans, each pronucleus carries 23 chromosomes, half the diploid number found in somatic cells. Upon fusion during syngamy, these combine to form the zygote nucleus with 46 chromosomes, marking the initiation of embryonic development. Pronuclei differ from the nuclei of mature gametes, which are produced through meiosis and remain in a condensed state until fertilization. These structures are transient, existing only briefly to facilitate the reorganization and alignment of genetic material prior to nuclear fusion. The formation and function of pronuclei represent a conserved feature of sexual reproduction across eukaryotes, occurring in diverse taxa such as animals, plants, and algae as an essential prelude to syngamy.

Structural Features

The pronucleus constitutes an enlarged haploid nucleus enveloped by a reformed nuclear membrane, enclosing decondensed chromatin organized into a less compact structure compared to the preceding gametic nuclei. This nuclear envelope, derived from oocyte endoplasmic reticulum components, integrates proteins such as lamins to provide structural support and facilitate nucleocytoplasmic transport, while the chromatin incorporates maternal histones and associated epigenetic modifiers. Within the pronucleus, nucleoli or nucleolar precursor bodies emerge as prominent substructures, clustering near the chromatin and containing ribosomal RNA precursors essential for early embryonic transcription. In mammals, the male pronucleus typically measures approximately 20-25 μm in diameter and arises from the sperm head, where protamine-packaged DNA undergoes rapid remodeling to histone-based chromatin supplied by the oocyte cytoplasm. This structure initially lacks embedded centrioles, which are contributed by the sperm but remain in the adjacent cytoplasm until post-fusion integration during syngamy. The male pronucleus often exhibits distinct epigenetic marks, such as elevated histone acetylation and reduced methylation on H3K9, contributing to its unique chromatin accessibility. The female pronucleus, by contrast, is similarly sized at around 20-30 μm in diameter in species like humans and mice, but features more prominent and numerous nucleoli due to maternal accumulation of ribosomal components. It harbors substantial maternal stores of RNAs and proteins, including factors like nucleoplasmin that aid in chromatin organization, and may appear asymmetrically shaped owing to its proximity to the oocyte's polar bodies and cytoplasmic determinants. This asymmetry influences nucleolar distribution and overall pronuclear morphology without affecting its core haploid composition. Pronuclei are readily observable in living mammalian zygotes through phase-contrast or differential interference contrast light microscopy, revealing their spherical to ovoid contours and internal nucleolar spots. For detailed visualization, fluorescent staining with DNA-binding dyes such as highlights decondensed patterns and nucleolar exclusion zones under epifluorescence or , enabling non-invasive assessment of structural integrity.

Formation

Female Pronucleus Formation

The formation of the female pronucleus is initiated by the entry of the into the , which triggers a series of signaling events including oscillatory increases in intracellular calcium levels that propagate as maternal calcium waves. These calcium signals induce cortical granule , a process that releases enzymes into the perivitelline space to modify the and prevent by hardening the egg coat. Concurrently, the calcium oscillations resume and drive the completion of the second meiotic division in the oocyte, which had been arrested at II. Upon completion of meiosis II, the oocyte extrudes the second polar body, retaining a haploid set of chromosomes in the ooplasm that subsequently decondense to form the female pronucleus. This decondensation involves the remodeling of the highly condensed oocyte chromatin, facilitated by maternal factors that promote histone modifications and chromatin relaxation, allowing the assembly of a functional nuclear envelope around the haploid genome. In mammals, this process is supported by the incorporation of maternal histone chaperones and variants, which ensure proper chromatin structure without the extensive protamine-to-histone exchange required in the male counterpart. The timeline for female pronucleus formation in mammals typically occurs within 3 to 10 hours post-fertilization, with species-specific variations; for instance, in mice, it forms around 7.5 hours after , while in humans, it appears by approximately 8 hours on average. This developmental window involves reorganization to facilitate extrusion and pronuclear assembly, coordinated by the calcium waves that sustain egg activation. Across species, the process exhibits notable variations. In sea urchins, where the oocyte completes meiosis prior to fertilization, the female pronucleus forms rapidly, within less than 30 minutes post-sperm entry, due to the pre-existing haploid state and swift decondensation.

Male Pronucleus Formation

Following sperm-egg fusion, the acrosome-reacted sperm penetrates the zona pellucida and delivers its haploid nucleus into the ooplasm, where initial structural changes occur to prepare for pronuclear development. The acrosome reaction, triggered by zona proteins, exposes enzymes that facilitate zona traversal and enables plasma membrane fusion with the egg. Upon entry, disassembly of the perinuclear theca—a cytoskeletal layer encapsulating the sperm nucleus—exposes the protamine-packaged DNA, marking the onset of nuclear remodeling. Decondensation of the sperm follows, involving the exchange of protamines for -derived s to restore a nucleosomal structure compatible with transcription. This process is driven by oocyte factors, notably , which reduces bonds in protamines, allowing chromatin uncoiling and histone incorporation. A new then assembles around the decondensed DNA, incorporating nuclear pores for transport. Key proteins such as importins facilitate nuclear pore complex assembly by regulating nucleoporin , while SMC proteins (structural maintenance of chromosomes) contribute to chromatin looping and higher-order during this reformation. Concurrently, the sperm's proximal serves as the primary microtubule-organizing center, nucleating astral essential for subsequent zygotic events. In humans, male pronucleus formation is typically observed between 8-12 hours post-sperm entry, as seen in (ICSI) procedures where decondensation begins around 4 hours in the . This timeline varies across species; in mammals, oocyte is crucial for reduction and efficient decondensation, whereas in like sea urchins, the process is faster—often under 1 hour—due to the acidic cytoplasmic environment that promotes dissociation and .

Role in Fertilization

Pronuclear Migration

Pronuclear migration refers to the cytoskeletal-driven process in which the male and female pronuclei move toward each other within the following fertilization, positioning them for subsequent syngamy. This movement is essential for the spatial alignment of parental genomes and is mediated primarily by networks organized by the sperm-derived , which forms a radial aster to generate pulling forces on the pronuclei. motors, anchored to the cortex or organelles, walk along these to produce the necessary force for pronuclear translocation, often in coordination with polymerization and depolymerization dynamics. In mammalian zygotes, such as those of mice, pronuclear migration occurs in two distinct phases: a rapid peripheral phase driven by polymerization via Formin-2 and nucleators, which propels the male pronucleus inward from the fertilization cone, followed by a slower central phase reliant on microtubule-dynein interactions for . The sperm-introduced proximal duplicates to form acentriolar microtubule-organizing centers (aMTOCs) that nucleate the aster, facilitating capture and transport of both pronuclei without a strict centriole dependency in all cases. This process typically unfolds over 4-8 hours post-fertilization in mice, with the male pronucleus starting farther from the cell center (approximately 37 μm) and migrating at initial velocities of 0.38 μm/min, slowing to 0.01 μm/min as it approaches the female pronucleus. Calcium signaling plays a regulatory role in pronuclear migration across species, with oscillatory calcium waves—often triggered by inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) receptors—promoting microtubule polymerization and aster formation shortly after fertilization. In mammalian eggs, these calcium oscillations, initiated by sperm phospholipase C zeta, sustain the cytoskeletal rearrangements needed for migration, while in sea urchins, a secondary calcium wave originating at the sperm entry point coincides with the onset of pronuclear movement. Species-specific variations highlight diverse cytoskeletal adaptations; in sea urchins, migration is microtubule-based via a rapidly maturing sperm aster, completing in under 30 minutes with velocities up to 4.9 μm/min, driven by dynein-mediated pulling without pronounced involvement in the central phase. In contrast, like Pelvetia, the female pronucleus remains anchored near the cell center by a stable and F- network, while the sperm pronucleus migrates toward it along fixed tracks, emphasizing a more static, directed pathway compared to the dynamic in mammals. Time-lapse imaging techniques, including 3D with fluorescent labels for (e.g., H2B-mCherry) and cell membranes (e.g., MyrGFP), have revealed synchronous rotation and approximation of pronuclei during migration, with the pronucleus often rotating as it is pulled centrally in mammalian zygotes. These visualizations demonstrate coordinated oscillatory movements and highlight the precision of dynein-driven transport in aligning the pronuclei.

Syngamy and Genome Activation

Syngamy represents the culminating event of fertilization, wherein the pronuclei approximate each other, their nuclear envelopes break down, and the parental align on a shared mitotic spindle to achieve diploidy in the daughter cells of the first cleavage division. This process is triggered by the activation of (MPF), which induces condensation and the assembly of a mitotic . In mammalian zygotes, the spindle formation often involves dual structures that initially align maternal and paternal separately before converging, ensuring proper chromosome segregation during the impending first mitotic division. The timeline of syngamy in humans typically occurs approximately 20 to 24 hours post-insemination, coinciding with the completion of in the pronuclei. This is preceded by the disassembly of the pronuclear lamina, a meshwork of proteins that supports the , facilitating envelope breakdown and release into the shared . Prior to this, initiates independently within each pronucleus during the S-phase, a process observed in species such as mice and humans, where replication licensing and origin firing occur asynchronously between parental genomes. Additionally, karyopherin-mediated nuclear import, which facilitates protein entry into the pronuclei during their formation, halts as the envelopes disassemble, marking the transition to mitotic events. Concomitant with syngamy is the onset of zygotic genome activation (ZGA), part of the broader maternal-to-zygotic transition (MZT) that shifts developmental control from maternal transcripts to embryonic . Recent research as of 2025 indicates that ZGA initiates at the one-cell stage in both mice and humans, with low-level transcription detectable shortly after fertilization, followed by a minor wave during the pronuclear stage that involves activity primarily from the male pronucleus in mice. The major wave follows at the 2-cell stage in mice and 4- to 8-cell stage in humans. The successful alignment and processing during syngamy terminates the pronuclear phase and initiates embryonic cleavage, with the integrated now poised for robust transcriptional activation.

Historical Development

Early Discoveries

The discovery of the pronucleus built upon foundational 19th-century studies of gametes, notably von Baer's 1827 identification of the mammalian ovum through microscopic examination of ovarian follicles in dogs and other mammals. This breakthrough shifted embryological research toward understanding egg structure and fertilization processes in animals. In 1875, Belgian cytologist Edouard Van Beneden advanced this field by observing pronuclei in the oocytes of rabbits and bats using light microscopy on fixed specimens. His work, detailed in a paper on egg maturation and early embryonic development, described the formation of a peripheral male pronucleus from sperm material diffusing through the egg membrane and a central female pronucleus, which subsequently fused to form the first embryonic nucleus. Van Beneden's observations linked these pronuclei to the broader context of egg maturation, foreshadowing connections to meiotic processes observed in his later studies. One year later, in 1876, German zoologist Oscar Hertwig provided the first clear visualization of pronuclear fusion during fertilization in echinoderms through experiments on eggs. By combining and eggs in seawater and observing the process under a —exploiting the transparency of eggs—Hertwig documented the pronucleus entering the egg and fusing with the female pronucleus, resolving debates on the role of in . These early efforts relied on rudimentary techniques such as direct microscopic viewing of living or freshly dissected material, basic fixation methods, and emerging nuclear staining to enhance visibility, without the benefit of molecular tools. Collectively, Van Beneden's and Hertwig's discoveries established pronuclei as distinct nuclear entities central to fertilization, transforming the view of the process from mere cell union to a precise nuclear merger essential for embryonic development.

Key Milestones

In the and , electron microscopy provided the first detailed views of pronuclear , revealing the decondensation of the nucleus into a fibrous network within the , as observed in mammalian species like rabbits. Pioneering studies by C.R. Austin in 1961 described these processes, highlighting the transformation of the compact head into a swollen pronucleus through and reformation. During the 1970s, research on advanced models of , where two sperm nuclei migrate to distinct targets in the embryo sac, forming separate pronuclei that fuse to initiate endosperm development in angiosperms. These cross-species investigations, using species like and lilies, elucidated pronuclear migration patterns and fusion mechanisms, contrasting with animal systems and informing evolutionary comparisons. The 1980s marked the IVF era, where pronuclei served as visible markers of successful fertilization in embryos, with early observations documenting their formation and symmetry within 18-24 hours post-insemination. Studies in by teams including Trounson and colleagues reported the timing of pronuclear appearance in cultured zygotes, enabling non-invasive assessment of fertilization viability. In the 1990s and 2000s, molecular insights deepened, with 1993 experiments on the alga Pelvetia demonstrating waves that trigger pronuclear formation and migration during fertilization. Concurrently, research in the 2000s uncovered the mechanisms of removal from the male pronucleus, linking it to epigenetic reprogramming via glutathione-mediated disulfide bond reduction and reassembly. Post-2010 advancements included applications, where pronuclear injections into enabled targeted to study paternal and maternal contributions, as shown in 2015 human tripronuclear experiments achieving high-efficiency mutations. Live-cell imaging techniques in 2015 further revealed the role of mammalian centrioles in pronuclear migration, illustrating microtubule-dependent centering of the male pronucleus toward the female.

Clinical and Research Significance

In Assisted Reproduction

In assisted reproduction, particularly fertilization (IVF), the observation of pronuclei serves as a critical indicator of successful fertilization. Approximately 16-18 hours after , embryologists assess for the presence of two distinct pronuclei (2PN), which signifies normal monospermic fertilization where one has penetrated the oocyte, leading to the decondensation of the head into the pronucleus and the formation of the pronucleus. The appearance of exactly two pronuclei is considered the ideal marker for selecting embryos suitable for transfer or further culture, as it confirms the extrusion of the second and the initiation of syngamy. In (ICSI) procedures, this assessment similarly verifies successful injection, though ICSI typically exhibits lower rates of compared to conventional IVF. The evaluation of pronuclei extends beyond mere counting to include morphological characteristics such as size symmetry and the of nucleolar precursor bodies (NPBs), which provide predictive insights into viability and implantation potential. Zygotes with symmetrical pronuclei and evenly distributed, large NPBs (e.g., in a polarized ) are associated with higher developmental competence and improved implantation rates. A study evaluating pronuclear morphology in conjunction with subsequent grading demonstrated that selecting based on these features significantly enhances implantation success. These assessments help prioritize embryos for transfer, reducing the risk of selecting non-viable ones in cycles where multiple oocytes are fertilized. Non-invasive techniques, such as time-lapse imaging systems integrated into incubators, have revolutionized pronuclei monitoring by allowing continuous observation without removing from optimal culture conditions. These systems capture images at intervals of 5-20 minutes, enabling the tracking of pronuclear formation, alignment, and disappearance in real-time, which correlates with subsequent cleavage timing and quality. By minimizing environmental disturbances, time-lapse monitoring improves the accuracy of fertilization confirmation and supports dynamic embryo selection algorithms that integrate pronuclear dynamics with later morphokinetic parameters. Recent advancements as of 2025 include AI-based analysis of pronuclear patterns to further refine viability predictions. Abnormal pronuclear configurations, such as the presence of three or more pronuclei (3PN), are indicative of , where multiple sperm enter the , and such zygotes are routinely discarded due to their high risk of chromosomal abnormalities and poor developmental outcomes. In human IVF cycles, approximately 70-80% of mature oocytes achieve normal fertilization as evidenced by the formation of two pronuclei, reflecting standard laboratory benchmarks for successful rates. This statistic underscores the efficiency of modern protocols while highlighting the need for careful pronuclear evaluation to optimize cycle success.

Abnormalities and Implications

One common abnormality in pronucleus formation is , where more than one fertilizes the , resulting in multiple male pronuclei (typically three or more in IVF settings). This occurs due to failure of the , a key polyspermy-blocking mechanism involving of cortical granules that modifies the to prevent additional penetration. leads to triploid zygotes with an extra paternal set, causing embryonic arrest at early cleavage stages and inviable development. Asynchronous pronuclear development, characterized by delayed formation or differing sizes of the male and female pronuclei, often stems from dysregulation of calcium oscillations essential for and pronuclear decondensation. Genetic defects in factors, such as in PLCZ1 encoding phospholipase C zeta, can impair these oscillations, leading to incomplete and asynchrony. Such abnormalities reduce viability, increasing rates of implantation failure and early arrest. Structural anomalies in pronuclei, including fragile nuclear envelopes and uneven distribution, are frequently linked to defects like deficiency, which disrupt proper decondensation and reprogramming during pronuclear formation. These issues can precipitate epigenetic errors, such as aberrant at imprinted loci, contributing to imprinting disorders like Beckwith-Wiedemann or Silver-Russell syndromes in ART-conceived offspring. In research, pronucleus abnormalities serve as models for studying mechanisms, as multipronucleate zygotes often exhibit chromosomal imbalances that mimic early embryonic errors. Clinically, they elevate risk, accounting for a significant portion of IVF cycle failures due to non-viable embryos. These abnormalities are more prevalent than , where natural barriers limit sperm access; for instance, eggs employ a rapid electrical fast-block to prevent , a mechanism less emphasized in mammals but complemented by zona modifications.

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