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Motion (parliamentary procedure)
Motion (parliamentary procedure)
Motion (parliamentary procedure)
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In parliamentary procedure, a motion is a formal proposal by a member of a deliberative assembly that the assembly take a particular action. These may include legislative motions, budgetary motions, supplementary budgetary motions, and petitionary motions.

The possible motions in a deliberative assembly are determined by a pre-agreed volume detailing the correct parliamentary procedure, such as Robert's Rules of Order; The Standard Code of Parliamentary Procedure; or Lord Citrine's The ABC of Chairmanship. Motions are used in conducting business in almost all legislative bodies worldwide, and are used in meetings of many church vestries, corporate boards, and fraternal organizations.

Motions can bring new business before the assembly or consist of numerous other proposals to take procedural steps or carry out other actions relating to a pending proposal (such as postponing it to another time) or to the assembly itself (such as taking a recess).

Purpose

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A motion is a formal proposal by a member to do something.[1] Motions are the basis of the group decision-making process.[2] They focus the group on what is being decided.

According to Robert's Rules, generally, a motion should be phrased in a way to take an action or express an opinion. A motion not to do something should not be offered, says Roberts, if the same result can happen without anything being done.[3] Such a motion could result in confusion if the assembly does not want to not do it.[3]

Process of handling motions

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The process of handling motions generally involves the following steps, depending on the motion and the rules of order in use:[4][5]

  1. A member obtains the floor and makes a motion.
  2. Another member seconds the motion.
  3. The chair states the motion.
  4. Members debate the motion.
  5. The chair puts the motion to a vote.
  6. The chair announces the results of the vote and what happens with the motion.

Proposing motions

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A motion is proposed by a member of the body, for the consideration of the body as a whole. Generally, the person making the motion, known as the mover, must first be recognized by the chairman as being entitled to speak; this is known as obtaining the floor.[6]

Once the mover has obtained the floor, the mover states the motion, normally prefixed with the phrase "I move."[7] For instance, at a meeting, a member may say, "I move that the group donate $5 to Wikipedia."

Instead of being given verbally, a motion may be made in writing, in which case it is called a proposed or draft resolution.[8] If the motion is in writing, the mover says "I move the resolution at the desk" or "I move the following resolution" and then reads it.

Generally, once the motion has been proposed, consideration by the assembly occurs only if another member of the body immediately seconds the motion.

Once the chair states the motion, it becomes the property of the assembly and the mover cannot modify it or withdraw it without the assembly's consent.[9]

Previous notice

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Previous notice is an announcement that a motion will be introduced at a future meeting of a deliberative assembly. Previous notice can be given in one of two ways. A member either announces it at a meeting of the assembly, in which case the secretary is to record it in the minutes, or notifies the secretary outside of the meeting. In either case, the secretary is to include in the call of the next meeting the motion's text, often accompanied by the name of the person who intends to move it. Certain motions – specifically, the motions to adopt or amend special rules of order, rescind, repeal or annul or amend something previously adopted, amend standing rules in a convention, discharge a committee, and postpone an event or action previously scheduled – are more difficult to pass if previous notice has not been given.[10] Often, a majority of the entire membership or a two-thirds vote is required if previous notice has not been given.[10] This rule is intended to protect the rights of absent members. Sometimes, when moving a motion of which notice has been given, a member, instead of reading aloud the entire text, will simply say "I move the motion which stands in my name".

Classification of motions

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There are different types of motions. Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised (RONR) divides motions into five classes:[11]

  1. Main motions, those that bring business before the assembly when no other motion is pending. This is the most common type of motion.[1]
  2. Subsidiary motions, which affect the main motion being considered.[12]
  3. Privileged motions, which are urgent matters that must be dealt with immediately, even if they interrupt pending business.[13]
  4. Incidental motions, which relate in different ways to the business at hand.[14]
  5. Motions that bring a matter again before the assembly.[15]

Classes 2, 3 and 4 are collectively referred to as "secondary motions".[11]

The Standard Code of Parliamentary Procedure treats the fifth class as a type of main motion, under the title "Restorative Main Motions".[16]

Mason's Manual of Legislative Procedure has a similar classification of motions.[17]

The United States Senate and House of Representatives have their own specialized motions as provided in the Standing Rules of the United States Senate and the procedures of the United States House of Representatives, respectively.[18][19]

Parliaments also have their own specialized motions.

In the Parliament of India there are broadly three categories of motion:

  1. Substantive Motion
  2. Substitute Motion
  3. Subsidiary Motion, further classified into ancillary motion, superseding motion and amendment.[20][21][22][23][24]

Main motion

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Main motion (RONR)
ClassMain motion
Requires second?Yes
Debatable?Yes
May be reconsidered?Yes
Amendable?Yes
Vote requiredMajority

A main motion is a motion that brings business before the assembly.[12] Main motions are made while no other motion is pending. Any of the subsidiary, incidental and privileged motions may be made while the main motion is pending, and in many cases these motions, if passed, will affect the assembly's consideration of the main motion.

When greater formality is desired, the main motion may be made in the form of a resolution, which is always submitted in writing.[25] A preamble containing several paragraphs explaining background information or justification for the proposed action is often included, but is not required.[26]

Normally, this is a motion that introduces a substantive question as a new subject, in which case it is also called an original main motion.[27] Otherwise, it is an incidental main motion, examples of which are the motions to adopt recommendations of a committee, to ratify action previously taken without a quorum, to rescind an action previously taken, or to adjourn or recess while no main motion is pending.[28] Unlike original main motions, incidental main motions cannot have an objection to the consideration of the question applied to them.

Subsidiary motion

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A subsidiary motion is a type of motion by which a deliberative assembly deals directly with a main motion prior to (or instead of) voting on the main motion itself.[12] Each subsidiary motion ranks higher than the main motion and lower than the privileged motions, and also yields to applicable incidental motions. Some of the subsidiary motions may also be applied to certain other subsidiary motions, incidental motions and privileged motions.

Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised recognizes seven subsidiary motions. Ranked lowest to highest in order of precedence, they are the motions to:[29]

  1. Postpone indefinitely—to end consideration of the main motion for the balance of that session, without a direct vote on the main motion.
  2. Amend—to change the main motion. (May also be applied to certain other motions).
  3. Commit or Refer—to send the main motion and any pending subsidiary motions to a committee for consideration.
  4. Postpone to a certain time (or Postpone Definitely, or Postpone) -- to delay consideration of the main motion and any pending subsidiary motions.
  5. Limit or extend limits of debate—to change limitations on number or length of speeches from those previously adopted.
  6. Previous Question—to close debate, preclude any further amendments and vote immediately. (May apply to any motion or pending series of motions.)
  7. Lay on the Table—to suspend consideration of the main motion and any pending subsidiary motions to allow for immediate consideration of more urgent business.

The Standard Code of Parliamentary Procedure differs as follows:

  • The motion to Postpone Indefinitely is omitted. The motion to Table (or Postpone Temporarily) is used instead.[30]
  • The motion for the Previous Question is instead called the motion to Close Debate.[31]

Privileged motion

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A privileged motion is a motion that is granted precedence over ordinary business because it concerns matters of great importance or urgency. Such motions are not debatable, although in case of questions of privilege, the chair may feel the need to elicit relevant facts from members.

According to Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised, the privileged motions are, in order of precedence:[32]

  1. Fix the time to which to adjourn, if another question is pending.
  2. Adjourn, but not if qualified or if adjournment would dissolve the assembly.
  3. Take a recess, if another question is pending.
  4. Raise a question of privilege
  5. Call for orders of the day

The Standard Code of Parliamentary Procedure omits Fix the time to which to adjourn, instead providing that the motion to adjourn may be amended with regard to the time to which to adjourn. This book also omits Call for orders of the day, on the grounds that any member may raise a point of order if the scheduled order of business is not being followed.[33]

Incidental motion

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An incidental motion is a motion that relates in varying ways to the main motion and other parliamentary motions.

Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised lists the following incidental motions: appeal the decision of the chair, consideration by paragraph or seriatim, division of a question, division of the assembly, motions relating to nominations, motions relating to methods of voting and the polls, objection to the consideration of a question, point of order, request to be excused from a duty, suspend the rules, and the requests and inquiries (parliamentary inquiry, request for information, request for permission to withdraw or modify a motion, request to read papers, and request for any other privilege). Most incidental motions are undebatable.[14]

Unlike the privileged and subsidiary motions, incidental motions have no order of precedence among themselves. They take precedence over any pending question out of which they arise.[34] Some incidental motions are only legitimately incidental at certain times or under certain conditions. For instance, the objection to the consideration of a question can only be raised before there has been any debate.[35]

Motions that bring a question again before the assembly

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Motions that bring a question again before the assembly are types of motions that are used to consider again a question that was previously disposed of.

Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised groups four motions under the classification name of "Motions that bring a question again before the assembly", because by their adoption or by their introduction, they serve the function described by the name of the class:[15] Take from the table, Rescind or amend something previously adopted, Discharge a committee, and Reconsider. Except for the motion to Reconsider, these motions are main motions and can only be made when no business is pending.

The Standard Code of Parliamentary Procedure classifies five "bring back" motions under the classification of main motions but lists them under the title of "Restorative Main Motions":[36] Amend a previous action, Ratify, Reconsider, Rescind, and Resume Consideration. This book treats the motion to rescind and the motion to amend something previously adopted as two distinct motion forms under the "Restorative Main Motions" title. Also, the motion to discharge a committee is not used in this book because it allows a motion previously referred to committee to be withdrawn from the committee by the assembly. The motion to ratify is also included in this group.[28]

Demeter's Manual of Parliamentary Law and Procedure uses the term, "restoratory", for a group of six motions that restored or brought a question back before the assembly:[37] Expunge, Ratify, Rescind, Reconsider, Reconsider and Enter, and Take from the table. These "restoratory" motions are quasi-main motions that restore the status quo of a question; that is, they bring a question back to its original status—as it was prior to the last vote on it.[38]

Rules on use

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Generally only one motion can be considered at a time. There is a precedence, or ranking of the motions, when multiple motions are made.[39] Each type of motion exists for a specific purpose. However, motions have been used beyond their stated purpose. Motions should not be made for dilatory or improper uses.

Strategic use of motions

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Motions can accomplish results beyond their stated and obvious purpose. An example in Robert's Rules of Order is using the motion to postpone indefinitely in order to enable members who have exhausted their right of debate on the main question an opportunity to speak further and to test the strength of opposition to the question, since straw polls are not in order.[40][41] Another example of strategic use of motions is moving to reconsider in order to "clinch" a decision on the primary motion and prevent its reconsideration later, since a failed motion to reconsider cannot be reconsidered without unanimous consent.[42] Since it is not possible to amend an amendment to an amendment, a member desiring to prevent amendments to his proposed language can do so by including it in a secondary amendment.[43]

Another parliamentary maneuver, which has been used in the United States Senate, is the so-called "nuclear option" in which a majority sidesteps the two-thirds vote requirement to suspend the rules by raising a point of order in favor of their favored interpretation of the rules, followed by an appeal in which the interpretation is then imposed by a majority vote.[44][45]

Dilatory tactics and motions

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Dilatory tactics or motions are those tactics used to delay or obstruct business, annoy the deliberative assembly, or, in legislative procedure, to delay consideration of a subject. Unlike using motions for strategic purposes, using them for dilatory purposes is not allowed. Reasonableness is often used as a criterion in deciding whether a motion is dilatory. Some types of motions are suitable only for specific circumstances, and their use is otherwise absurd and dilatory.

For instance, a motion to refer (commit) a resolution to a committee is dilatory if its object would be defeated by the delay in taking action.[46] A motion to appeal the ruling of the chair is dilatory if there cannot possibly be two reasonable opinions about the ruling.[47] Likewise, a motion for a division of the assembly is dilatory if the results of the voice vote are already clear to any reasonable person.[48] The repetitive use of privileged motions can also be dilatory, such as repeatedly moving to adjourn when it has been voted down and nothing indicates that the assembly wants to end the meeting.[49]

A presiding officer has a duty to protect the assembly from the abuse of parliamentary processes for dilatory purposes.[50] The chair can rule the motions out of order or refuse to recognize the member, but the maker of the motion should be given the benefit of the doubt.[50]

In legislative bodies, dilatory motions can take the form of demanding quorum calls and votes at every opportunity. Another dilatory tactic is for members to not answer when their name is called during the quorum roll call. The problem of dilatory tactics in such bodies dates back to the beginnings of parliamentary procedure in England and the United States.[citation needed] Jefferson's Manual, for instance, only requires the Speaker to direct a bill to be read upon the desire of any member "if the request is really for information and not for delay."[51] In the US Senate, there are no formal rules against dilatory tactics except under cloture.[52] Between 1831 and 1900, dilatory votes to adjourn composed more than 10 percent of all Senate votes, and successfully delayed recognition of Louisiana's Reconstruction government until 1868.[53] According to Sarah Binder, in the 46th United States Congress, motions to adjourn consumed 23 percent of all floor votes.[54] Speaker Thomas Brackett Reed famously took countermeasures against dilatory tactics, such as ruling dilatory motions out of order, and was sustained by the house. Some legislatures impose quotas on dilatory motions. For instance, the Nova Scotia House of Assembly imposes a maximum of one motion to hoist, one motion to refer to a committee, and one reasoned amendment per reading.[55] The Rules of the U.S. Congress as revised in 1911 declare that no dilatory motion shall be entertained by the Speaker.

The term "dilatory motion" does not always refer to an ill-intentioned motion. In Canada, "dilatory" motions refer to those "designed to dispose of the original question before the House either for the time being or permanently," and includes, for instance, motions to proceed to the orders of the day; postpone definitely; adjourn; and so on.[24] Jeremy Bentham held that such types of dilatory motions are useful, stating, "Precipitation may arise from two causes: from ignorance, when a judgment is formed without the collection of all the information required—from passion, when there is not the necessary calm for considering the question in all its aspects."[56]

Renewal of motions

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Renewal of a motion is the act of bringing up again a motion that has already been disposed of by the deliberative assembly. Generally, the assembly cannot be asked to decide the same question, or substantially the same question, as one it has already decided upon in the same session.

The underlying principle behind the non-renewal of a motion dates back to at least April 2, 1607, when the House of Commons adopted a rule "That a question being once made, and carried in the affirmative or negative, cannot be questioned again, but must stand as a judgement of the House".[57] Over the past 400 years, various rules have evolved by precedent to allow and manage renewal of motions under specific circumstances.

Renewal of motions is closely tied to the parliamentary concept of "session". Sessions in ordinary societies usually consist of one meeting, but legislative sessions can continue for months or years. A motion that has been rejected (voted down) in one session, cannot be easily brought up again in that session, but can be renewed in following sessions as a new motion. Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised provides exceptions to non-renewal through the motions to Reconsider, Rescind, or Amend Something Previously Adopted.

In the British House of Commons, a motion or an amendment which is the same, in substance, as a question which has been decided during a session may not be renewed again in that same session.[58] Such substantive motions can be renewed in succeeding sessions as new motions. Reversals of earlier decisions can be done by Repeal of a Standing Order, Annulment, or Rescission. The repeal of a standing order is normally made as part of an order creating a new standard order. An annulment is used to declare proceedings to be null and void because of some form of irregularity in procedure. Renewals in the form of a rescission of a resolution made in earlier sessions is not prohibited by the practice of the House of Commons, but is seldom done. Technically it is regarded as a new question: the form being to read the previous resolution of the House and to move that it be rescinded. This power of rescission has been used sparingly and then only in the case of substantive motions. The reasons why open rescission is so rare is that the House instinctively realizes that parliamentary government requires the majority to abide by a decision regularly come to, however unexpected, and that it is unfair to resort to methods, whether direct or indirect, to reverse such a decision. Essentially this is a safeguard for the rights of the minority.[59]

National Legislatures

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United Kingdom

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In both Houses of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, motions can be classified in two separate categories: motions of which notice does not have to be given and motions of which notice must be given.

Motions belonging to the first category are mostly ones which deal with procedural points, such as motions to close debate, to invoke the previous question, to adjourn consideration of a matter before the House, or to sit in private.[60]

Motions belonging to the first category constitute the large majority of motions considered by the House. If a Member intends to move one, he must first notify the Chair of the motion's text. Thereafter, if the Government (which is in charge of parliamentary business) decides to allow debate on that motion to be held, and to set a day on which such debate will be held, the motion's text will appear on that day's Order Paper, next to the name of the Member who intends to move it. At the beginning of the sitting, the Presiding Officer shall call on the Member whose name is the first to appear on the Order Paper to move his or her motion. This is often done by saying "I beg to move", followed by the entire text of the motion, or more simply by saying "I beg to move the motion which stands in my name on the Order Paper". After debate on that motion has ended (and the motion itself has either been put up to a vote or withdrawn), the Presiding Officer shall call upon the Member whose name is the second to appear on the Order Paper, and the process is repeated until either all motions on the Order Paper have been debated or the sitting has been adjourned.[61][62]

Motions which have not yet been granted by the Government a day on which to be debated are called early day motions.

Similar rules apply in most Commonwealth Parliaments.

The Netherlands

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In both the Senate and House of Representatives of the Netherlands, members may present motions, often to urge a member of the Cabinet to change their policy or budget, or as a motion of no confidence. Such motions are usually presented near the end of a plenary or commission debate. In the Senate, a motion must be supported by at least 5 senators, though this is not required in the House. House motions are more common than Senate motions.

In the House, motions are voted on during the weekly voting period of the plenary debate, usually after the hour of question time on Tuesday. Before the voting period starts, the concerned member of the Cabinet may utter their judgement on every submitted motion, according to the table below

Judgement Meaning
Take on The Cabinet member agrees with the motion and takes it on in their policy, provided no members of the House urge for a vote.
Discouraged The Cabinet member has objections to the motion and advises the House against adopting it.
Unacceptable The Cabinet member has fundamental objections to a motion (such as consequences for keeping their position).
Hold* The Cabinet member advises the Member to hold the motion, for instance to provide time for extra information to come out.
House judgement The Cabinet member has no strong opinions and will agree with and take on the judgement of the House.

*If the Member who presented the motion does not want to hold, the Cabinet member has to give another judgement to the motion.

Motions are, like proposed laws, usually voted on by party, though any member may request a roll call vote. If a motion is accepted, the Cabinet is not required to take it on, though they usually do. Motions are very common in both Houses, as the House of Representatives alone submits and votes on several thousands of motion a year.[63][64][65]

See also

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References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Motion (parliamentary procedure)

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A motion in is a formal proposal advanced by a member of a , requesting that the body take specific action or adopt a particular position. These proposals constitute the core mechanism for advancing business in meetings, ensuring structured debate, amendment, and decision-making among participants. Under standard rules such as those outlined in , motions are classified into main motions, which introduce substantive new matters; subsidiary motions, which modify or dispose of pending questions (e.g., to amend, postpone, or refer); privileged motions, which address urgent procedural needs without debate (e.g., to adjourn or recess); and incidental motions, which arise directly from another motion or the assembly's conduct (e.g., points of order or appeals). The typical lifecycle of a motion involves its introduction by the maker, a second from another member to confirm interest, open discussion limited by and time, possible amendments, and final disposition via vote—often by voice, , or —reflecting tempered by thresholds for certain actions. Rooted in centuries-old English parliamentary traditions dating to the 16th and 17th centuries, the formalized use of motions was adapted and codified in the United States through Robert's 1876 manual , which standardized practices for voluntary societies, legislative bodies, and organizations to promote efficiency, fairness, and minority protections in collective deliberation.

Definition and Purpose

Core Definition

In parliamentary procedure, a motion constitutes a formal proposal advanced by a member of a that the assembly undertake specific action or articulate particular views. This mechanism forms the foundational vehicle for introducing substantive business, enabling structured deliberation and decision-making on matters before the group. Unlike informal suggestions, motions adhere to prescribed protocols to maintain order and equity among participants. The process commences with the member securing recognition from the presiding , followed by an affirmative statement of the proposal, conventionally phrased as "I move that..." to specify the desired outcome. A second from another member is requisite to validate the motion for consideration; absent this, the proposal lapses without further action. Upon restatement by the , the motion transitions into the assembly's collective possession, subjecting it to potential modification via amendments while prohibiting unilateral withdrawal by the originator without consent. Debate ensues thereafter, commencing with the motion's proponent and confined to and time limits to prevent filibustering or digression, with remarks addressed to the rather than directly to others. Resolution occurs through voting, employing methods such as voice, rising, roll-call, or as dictated by the assembly's bylaws or adopted rules, thereby ascertaining majority support or opposition. This sequence ensures motions advance organizational objectives efficiently while safeguarding minority rights and procedural fairness.

Fundamental Objectives

Motions in parliamentary procedure fundamentally aim to introduce proposals for action, resolution, or expression of position to an assembly, enabling the group to transact through structured and voting. This core function ensures that substantive matters are formally presented when no other question is pending, preventing ad hoc discussions and focusing collective attention on specific issues. For instance, a main motion proposes original , such as adopting a or allocating resources, which then becomes the subject of and requires a vote for adoption unless otherwise specified. A second objective is to maintain order and efficiency by enforcing precedence among motions, allowing only one question to be considered at a time and providing tools for prompt disposition, such as tabling, referring to , or postponing. This structure facilitates expeditious operations while ensuring members receive necessary information through , thereby supporting informed decisions without undue delay. and incidental motions, for example, assist in modifying or procedurally handling main motions, yielding to privileged motions for urgent matters like , thus balancing thoroughness with procedural economy. Additionally, motions uphold fairness by incorporating safeguards like requirements for seconding, debate limitations, and minority protections, such as the ability to reconsider or amend, which promote equal treatment and respect among participants. These elements collectively ensure that assemblies operate justly, with rules directing focus to issues rather than individuals and allowing all viewpoints expression under controlled conditions. In practice, this framework, as codified in standards like , has enabled diverse bodies—from legislative houses to nonprofit boards—to achieve consensus-driven outcomes since its formalization in the 19th century.

Historical Development

Origins in English Parliamentary Tradition

The practice of motions in parliamentary procedure emerged from the deliberative traditions of the English Parliament, particularly the , as it transitioned from advisory assemblies in the medieval period to a body capable of initiating and resolutions. By the , the had developed customs for members to formally propose matters for consideration, debate, and vote, addressing the need for orderly decision-making amid growing participation from knights and burgesses. These proposals, often in the form of bills or questions, allowed any qualified member to initiate action, reflecting a of collective rooted in the assembly's role in granting supplies and redressing grievances to . Sir Thomas Smith documented these early procedures in De Republica Anglorum (first drafted around 1562–1565, published 1583), providing the earliest systematic description of practices. Smith explained that bills—equivalent to substantive proposals or main motions—could be introduced by any member, read thrice with intervening debates limited to one speech per member per reading, and advanced or rejected via questions put to the house. This framework emphasized precedence, , and voting by voices or division, establishing motions as the mechanism to structure business and prevent disorder. Smith's account, drawn from his service as a and , underscores how motions evolved to balance free speech with efficiency in a chamber lacking rigid hierarchies beyond the Speaker's role. In the early 17th century, during the of –1610 convened by James I, motions became integral to handling petitions and legislative stages, with members explicitly "moving" for readings, engrossments, or commitments of bills. Records show motions used to test house sentiment on specific questions, such as whether a bill should proceed after initial debate, often tied to petitions from counties or corporations presented by representatives. This period marked a shift toward more regularized use, influenced by conflicts over royal prerogatives and the union with , where procedural tools like motions helped navigate contentious issues without descending into . The adoption of provisional rules in , later evolving into standing orders, further entrenched motions as tools for managing time, precedence, and dilatory challenges, laying groundwork for later codifications like those in Hatsell's precedents.

Codification and Modernization

The formal codification of parliamentary procedures, including motions, began in the early in the United States, where legislative bodies sought to standardize practices derived from British traditions for consistent application. compiled A Manual of Parliamentary Practice in 1801, drawing from English parliamentary sources and his own studies, to guide the amid the absence of comprehensive written rules; this manual outlined rules for motions, , and voting to ensure orderly deliberation and minority protections. Jefferson's work addressed practical gaps in daily operations, such as motion precedence and processes, and it remains partially incorporated into the U.S. House Rules to this day. For non-legislative assemblies, such as voluntary societies and organizations, , a U.S. Army engineer, authored in 1876, adapting congressional precedents—including those from —to suit smaller deliberative bodies lacking established customs. This manual systematically classified motions into categories like main, subsidiary, privileged, and incidental, establishing a hierarchical precedence that prioritized higher-ranking motions to maintain efficiency and focus debate; for instance, it specified that subsidiary motions (e.g., to amend or postpone) could interrupt or modify a main motion without derailing the assembly's business. Robert's codification emphasized empirical adaptation from observed legislative practices, aiming to prevent chaos in meetings he had witnessed, such as a disorganized church gathering in 1863 that prompted his effort. Modernization of these codified rules has occurred through iterative revisions reflecting evolving organizational needs, technological changes, and clarifications of ambiguities. Robert's manual underwent its first major revision in 1915 under the author's direction, followed by posthumous updates: the 1951 edition (sixth) introduced streamlined language and expanded examples; the 1970 seventh edition addressed and proxy issues; subsequent editions in 1981, 1990, 2000, 2011, and 2020 (twelfth) incorporated guidance on , disciplinary procedures, and virtual meetings, while preserving core motion hierarchies. Jefferson's has seen periodic reprints and integrations into congressional rules without fundamental overhauls, maintaining its role as a foundational reference. Alternative modern codes, such as Alice Sturgis's The Standard Code of Parliamentary Procedure (first published 1950), emerged to simplify Robert's complexity for smaller groups, prioritizing brevity in motion handling over exhaustive classification, though Robert's remains the most widely adopted standard.

Classification of Motions

Main Motions

A main motion constitutes the fundamental mechanism in for presenting substantive business to an assembly for deliberation and action, encompassing any original proposition not arising from another pending question. It must propose a specific action, such as adopting a , authorizing expenditure, or appointing a , and cannot be introduced while another motion is pending, thereby upholding the principle that only one substantive question occupies the floor at a time. In Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised (RONR), the prevailing authority on the subject, main motions are distinguished from or incidental motions by their role in initiating rather than modifying or interrupting business. To introduce a main motion, a member obtains recognition from the by rising and addressing them (e.g., "Mr. Chair" or "Madam President"), then states the motion in the form "I move that [specific action]," avoiding personal pronouns or incomplete phrasing to ensure clarity and secondability. Another member seconds the motion to confirm assembly interest, after which the restates it for the record, opening it to unless privileged matters intervene. This process requires no prior unless the motion alters bylaws, creates special orders, or involves significant financial commitments, in which case advance announcement ensures informed consideration. Main motions generally require a vote for adoption, though certain variants—such as those rescinding prior actions without previous —demand a two-thirds vote or consensus to prevent hasty reversals. Original main motions exhibit standard characteristics under RONR: they are debatable, allowing unlimited discussion germane to the question; amendable by subsidiary motions to refine wording or scope; subject to further subsidiary applications like or referral; and eligible for reconsideration if timely raised. They yield precedence to privileged motions (e.g., ) and cannot ongoing proceedings, reinforcing orderly progression of business. However, main motions conflicting with bylaws, constitutions, or higher authority are out of order, and those dilatory or frivolous (e.g., repeating defeated questions without changed circumstances) may be ruled improper by the , subject to . Examples of main motions include "I move that the allocate $500 for new equipment" to authorize spending, or "I move to establish a to review membership policies" to delegate tasks. In practice, such as in nonprofit boards or legislative bodies adhering to RONR, a main motion to "donate $200 to a foundation" advances charitable goals, while one to "conduct a project" initiates programmatic action, each requiring sequential handling before new business. These motions form the backbone of assembly decision-making, with over 90% of procedural actions in typical meetings stemming from or relating to main motions, per analyses of RONR applications in organizational settings.

Subsidiary Motions

Subsidiary motions assist an assembly in treating or disposing of a main motion, or sometimes other motions, by modifying its handling, delaying action, or effecting its rejection without a direct vote. These motions are applied directly to another pending motion, typically the main motion, and must be decided before the motion to which they attach can be considered further. Unlike main motions, subsidiary motions do not introduce new substantive business but facilitate the assembly's process in addressing it. As a class, subsidiary motions share five principal characteristics: they apply to another motion to influence its disposition; they take precedence over the main motion to which applied but yield to higher-ranking motions such as privileged ones; they follow a fixed among themselves, determining which can interrupt another; they are out of order if no eligible motion is pending for application; and their debatability, amendability, and voting thresholds vary by individual motion but generally align with aiding efficient assembly action. A subsidiary motion requires a second unless otherwise specified and cannot be made when another subsidiary motion of equal or lower precedence is pending, ensuring orderly progression. The standard subsidiary motions, listed in descending order of precedence as codified in parliamentary authorities like Robert's Rules of Order, are as follows:
  • Limit or Extend Limits of Debate: Restricts or expands debate time on the pending motion, requiring a two-thirds vote due to its impact on members' rights; not debatable or amendable itself.
  • Previous Question: Orders an immediate vote on the pending motion, closing further debate; requires a two-thirds vote and is not debatable or amendable.
  • Lay on the Table: Temporarily sets aside the pending motion to address more urgent business, requiring a majority vote; not debatable or amendable, and the motion can be taken from the table later by majority vote.
  • Postpone to a Certain Time (or Definitely): Delays consideration of the motion to a specified later time or meeting, carrying attached amendments with it; debatable and amendable, requiring a majority vote, but cannot extend beyond the session or a quarter unless specified.
  • Commit or Refer (or Refer to Committee): Sends the motion to a committee for study or action, with instructions possible; debatable and amendable, requiring a majority vote, and the committee reports back unless discharged.
  • Amend: Modifies the wording or substance of the pending motion, with primary and secondary amendments possible but limited to one at a time; debatable if the main motion is, requiring a majority vote for substantive changes.
  • Postpone Indefinitely: Effectively kills the main motion by referring it to an uncertain future without direct rejection, avoiding a vote on merits; debatable like the main motion but not amendable, requiring a majority vote.
These motions enable assemblies to refine, prioritize, or defer business without adopting or rejecting the underlying proposal outright, promoting deliberate and structured deliberation. When a main motion is disposed of via a motion, any attached motions are typically resolved or carried forward as applicable.

Privileged Motions

Privileged motions in , as codified in Newly Revised (12th edition), are a class of motions that address urgent or essential matters affecting the rights and privileges of the assembly or its members, unrelated to any pending business. These motions take precedence over all other types, including main, , and incidental motions, allowing them to ongoing debate or action when necessary to resolve immediate concerns. They are distinguished from other motions by their high rank in the , ensuring that critical procedural or welfare issues are handled without delay. Key characteristics of privileged motions include their ability to supersede pending questions, with internal precedence among themselves determining which yields to another. Most are undebatable and unamendable to expedite resolution, though exceptions exist for motions like recess or questions of privilege, which may permit limited debate or amendment when stated. They require a second only if made as formal motions rather than points, and they can be reconsidered in specific cases, but their primary purpose is to maintain order and efficiency in deliberative assemblies. Unlike subsidiary motions, privileged ones do not address the merits of pending business but focus on the assembly's operational integrity. The standard list of privileged motions, ranked by precedence from highest to lowest, consists of five:
  • Fix the Time to Which to Adjourn: Establishes the date, hour, and place for reconvening after ; privileged only when another question is pending, amendable, and debatable if it proposes a time certain.
  • Adjourn: Terminates the meeting immediately; undebatable and unamendable, but yields to fixing the time to adjourn; in ongoing sessions without fixed end, it may function as a main motion instead.
  • Recess: Provides a short without ending the session; privileged when business is pending, amendable as to duration, and debatable only if specifying length.
  • Raise a Question of Privilege (or Point of Privilege): Addresses urgent matters concerning the comfort, , or of the assembly or members, such as interference or inaccurate minutes; interrupts if pressing, debatable and amendable as a main motion when entertained.
  • Call for the Orders of the Day: Enforces adherence to a previously adopted agenda or program; no second required, undebatable, and can demand immediate compliance unless the assembly votes to set aside orders.
These motions ensure that assemblies can respond promptly to procedural emergencies without derailing substantive discussion, a principle rooted in the need for orderly deliberation since the 19th-century formalization of rules.

Incidental Motions

Incidental motions address procedural questions that arise during the handling of other motions or business in an assembly. These motions relate to the question then under consideration or the process of considering it, and they must be disposed of prior to resuming action on the original motion. Unlike main or subsidiary motions, incidental motions have no established order of precedence among themselves but take priority over the motion out of which they arise, ensuring immediate resolution of procedural issues. They are generally not debatable, except where the motion to which they attach permits debate, and most require a second but no previous notice. The primary types of incidental motions, as codified in standard parliamentary authorities, include the following:
  • Point of order: Raised to enforce applicable rules when the chair or another member appears to be acting in violation of them, such as improper procedure or breach of . It can a speaker and is decided by the chair, subject to , without requiring a second or vote unless appealed.
  • Appeal from the decision of the : Allows to challenge the ruling of the presiding on a or similar matter. It requires a second, is debatable if the underlying question is, and is resolved by a vote if debatable or a tie sustains the otherwise.
  • Consideration by paragraph or : Proposes dividing a resolution or document into sections for separate consideration and , applicable when the text is long or complex. It requires a second and majority vote, and is not debatable.
  • Division of a question: Seeks to separate a motion into distinct parts for voting, but only if each part can stand independently; complex or inextricably linked motions cannot be divided. It requires a second and majority approval, with no debate allowed.
  • Division of the assembly: Calls for a standing count or to verify a voice vote's result when a member doubts its accuracy. No second is needed, and the orders it without a vote; it is not debatable.
  • Motions relating to methods of voting and the polls: Address the mechanics of voting, such as demanding a , closing or reopening polls, or verifying a vote. These vary in debatability based on context but generally require a second and are decided by .
  • Objection to the consideration of a question: Prevents a main motion from coming before the assembly by objecting immediately after it is stated, requiring a two-thirds vote against to suppress it; it is not debatable or amendable.
  • Suspension of the rules: Temporarily sets aside a rule not conflicting with the assembly's or bylaws to permit an action otherwise out of order. It demands a two-thirds vote in the affirmative, is not debatable, and cannot interrupt pending questions unless urgency applies.
Additional incidental inquiries, such as parliamentary inquiry (seeking the chair's opinion on parliamentary law) or point of information (requesting factual clarification), facilitate procedural clarity without formal motions or votes in many cases, though they interrupt only if the chair permits. These motions collectively ensure orderly conduct by addressing ancillary procedural needs without derailing substantive business.

Renewal Motions

Renewal motions enable parliamentary assemblies to revisit previously decided questions, subject to strict limitations designed to uphold decisional finality while accommodating evolving circumstances or errors. Under established rules, such as those in Newly Revised (12th edition, 2020), a core principle prohibits renewing a motion—the act of reintroducing it for decision—within the same session if it has already been adopted, rejected, postponed indefinitely, or resolved via , as this would compel the assembly to address substantially identical issues repeatedly, undermining efficiency and . Exceptions permit renewal at a later session or meeting, where the motion may be offered anew during the appropriate order of business, such as new business, provided it is not dilatory—meaning it must reflect genuine new information, altered context, or substantial modification to avoid being ruled out of order by the . For example, a main motion defeated by vote in one session can be renewed verbatim at the next session by any member, as the prior rejection does not bar future consideration across sessions unless bylaws or special rules specify otherwise. Within the same session, renewal is facilitated primarily through the motion to reconsider, which allows a member who voted with the prevailing side to propose revisiting a question immediately after its decision or at the next session, requiring a second and vote to reopen and voting; this motion itself cannot be renewed and lapses if not acted upon timely. Motions to rescind (to an adopted action) or to amend something previously adopted serve analogous renewal functions for affirmative decisions, demanding a two-thirds vote, previous notice, or of the entire membership, ensuring protection against hasty reversals. Subsidiary motions like postpone indefinitely or certain amendments cannot be renewed in the same session but may be at later ones, while privileged motions such as adjourn retain renewal privileges to address urgent needs without session-long bars. These rules trace to the need for causal stability in group decisions: premature renewals risk factional , whereas overly rigid finality ignores real-world changes, with the chair's enforcement relying on contextual judgment to discern substantive novelty from repetition. In classification schemes, renewal motions form a distinct category alongside main, subsidiary, privileged, and incidental motions, encompassing reconsider, rescind, take from the table, and , as they target prior dispositions rather than originating fresh business.

Introduction of Motions

Proposing a Motion

In parliamentary procedure, as codified in Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised (12th edition, 2020), proposing a motion initiates the formal consideration of a question by the assembly. A member first obtains the floor by rising (in formal assemblies) and addressing the presiding officer with an appropriate title, such as "Mr. Chair" or "Madam President," awaiting recognition before speaking. Recognition ensures only one speaker at a time and maintains order, with the chair granting it to members nearest the question or those rising first. Once recognized, the member proposes the motion concisely, typically phrasing it as "I move that..." followed by a clear, affirmative statement of the intended action, such as "I move that the allocate $5,000 to community outreach programs." Motions must advance substantive business within the assembly's scope, be germane to any pending question, and avoid dilatory intent, such as frivolous or obstructive proposals; the may rule non-compliant motions out of order immediately. Negative phrasing, like "I move that we do not approve...," is improper, as it inverts the question and complicates voting; instead, opposition arises during or vote. Any voting member, including the presiding (though the should relinquish the or abstain to preserve ), may propose a motion during appropriate periods, such as new business. A second is required for most motions, including main motions, provided by another member simply stating "Second" or "I second," without needing recognition or explanation. The second confirms sufficient interest for assembly consideration, not endorsement of the motion's merits, and prevents individual members from consuming time on unsupported ideas; without a second, the chair declares the motion "lost for lack of a second" and it receives no further action. Certain privileged or incidental motions may not require seconds, but proposing them follows similar recognition protocols. Upon receiving a second, the restates the motion in full, such as "It is moved and seconded that the organization allocate $5,000 to community outreach programs," thereby "stating the question" and placing it before the assembly for , , or vote. The exact wording at this stage becomes the official form, often recorded in minutes for precision, and the maker of the motion gains first right to . This process upholds democratic efficiency, ensuring proposals reflect collective will rather than unilateral initiative.

Requirements for Previous Notice

Previous notice, as defined in Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised (RONR, 12th ed.), is a formal announcement required before introducing certain motions that significantly affect members' rights or the organization's rules, such as amending bylaws, rescinding prior actions, or adopting special rules of order. This requirement ensures members can prepare, attend, and deliberate informedly, protecting absentee rights and preventing hasty decisions by temporary majorities. Without notice, such motions typically demand a two-thirds vote; with proper notice, a majority vote often suffices, though bylaws may impose stricter thresholds. The timing for giving notice must provide a "reasonable" interval, generally at the prior regular meeting or earlier if meetings are infrequent, but at least equivalent to the notice period for the meeting itself (e.g., a quarterly notice for quarterly meetings). For special meetings, notice is mandatory and must detail the specific motions to be considered, limiting business to announced items. Notice can be oral during a meeting or written via the call to meeting, , or other communication methods authorized by the organization's rules, provided it reaches all members or a . Content requirements vary by motion type: for bylaws amendments or precise changes to existing actions, the must include the exact wording or a clear description of its full effect to avoid . A general intent statement suffices for motions like discharge from committee if it conveys the purpose, but vagueness invalidates , requiring restart. Renewal of is unnecessary if the motion carries over to the next session, but lapsed demands fresh announcement. Organizations may adopt rules specifying methods, such as electronic delivery, but cannot eliminate RONR's core protections without a two-thirds vote after .

Handling and Disposition of Motions

Debate and Amendment Processes

Debate in parliamentary procedure commences once the presiding officer states the question on the motion, allowing members to discuss its merits before voting. The maker of the motion has the right to speak first in , followed by alternations between speakers favoring and opposing the motion when practicable to ensure balanced consideration. Members must obtain recognition from the chair before speaking, and must remain germane to the immediate pending question, excluding personal attacks, irrelevant arguments, or references to personalities. A member may not speak more than twice to the same question on the same day, nor longer than ten minutes continuously without the assembly's consent, though these limits do not apply to the maker's opening speech if it introduces the motion. The enforces debate rules by recognizing speakers in the order they rise and may to maintain order, but members cannot a speaker except through higher-precedence motions like points of order or privilege. can be limited or closed by subsidiary motions such as "limit or extend limits of " (requiring a two-thirds vote) or "" (also two-thirds vote to halt further discussion), which take precedence over continuing . These mechanisms prevent filibustering while preserving the assembly's right to informed deliberation, though undebatable motions like certain privileged ones (e.g., adjourn) inherently restrict discussion. Amendments modify the wording of a pending motion and are introduced as motions, requiring a second and a vote for adoption. Valid amendments must be germane, meaning they address the same subject as the original motion without introducing entirely new questions, and they can take forms such as inserting or adding words, striking out words, striking out and inserting, or substituting an entire paragraph or section. An is debatable only if the motion it amends is debatable, and it yields to higher-precedence motions like amendments to the , ensuring a hierarchical where secondary amendments are voted on first, followed by the primary , and then the amended main motion. During amendment debate, discussion focuses on the amendment's merits relative to the original motion, not the main question itself unless the amendment reopens it; multiple amendments can be considered sequentially, but the chair may rule non-germane or dilatory ones out of order to avoid procedural complexity. Amendments cannot be used to circumvent notice requirements or fundamentally alter a motion's intent without proper precedence, as seen in rules prohibiting amendments that negate the motion's purpose. Once adopted, an amendment becomes part of the motion for voting purposes, but rejected amendments do not preclude their reintroduction if the main motion fails or is reconsidered. This process upholds the principle of majority rule through iterative refinement while constraining minority obstruction.

Voting Procedures

In parliamentary procedure, the disposition of a motion typically culminates in a vote by the assembled members, with the chair declaring the result based on established methods to ensure fairness and efficiency. The fundamental principle is majority rule, where a majority of the votes cast determines the outcome, excluding abstentions unless the organization's rules specify otherwise. A quorum must be present for the vote to be valid, defined as the minimum number of members required by the bylaws, often a majority of the total membership. Votes that violate bylaws or legal requirements, such as those cast by ineligible members, are null even if unanimous. The preferred initial method is the voice vote, in which the chair states the motion and calls for "ayes" followed by "noes," assessing the prevailing side by the relative volume and clarity of responses without counting. This method, suitable for routine matters, allows quick resolution but relies on the chair's judgment; any member may challenge it by calling for a division if they doubt the result. A rising vote or follows, where members stand or raise hands separately for each side, enabling tellers appointed by the chair to count and report the exact numbers to verify the outcome. For matters requiring secrecy or precision, such as elections or sensitive issues, a vote is used, involving written or marked ballots collected and tallied anonymously by tellers. This method demands a unless bylaws stipulate plurality or other thresholds, and it can be ordered by a vote if not initially specified. In larger assemblies or when a record is needed, a roll-call vote may be taken, with members' names called alphabetically and responses recorded, often electronically in modern legislative bodies; this requires a vote to order unless standing rules mandate it. or general consent votes bypass formal tallying for non-controversial actions, but any objection reverts to standard procedures. Certain motions demand supermajorities, such as a two-thirds vote for suspending rules or limiting , calculated from the total members present excluding absences and abstentions. The chair's announcement of the vote stands unless immediately appealed, with the assembly deciding by if the appeal is seconded; ties favor the , defeating most motions. These procedures prioritize orderly decision-making while accommodating the assembly's need for verifiable results.

Governing Rules and Principles

Precedence and Interruptibility

In , as codified in Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised (RONR), motions are assigned a strict that determines their relative priority during a meeting. This ensures orderly by allowing only motions of equal or higher rank to be introduced while a lower-ranking motion is pending; conversely, a pending motion blocks the introduction of any lower-ranking one until it is resolved. The ranking applies primarily to ordinary motions, divided into privileged (highest precedence, addressing urgent assembly needs), (handling or modifying a main motion), and main motions (introducing substantive business, lowest rank). Incidental motions, which arise from other motions or proceedings, possess no fixed rank and are governed by the context of the question they address. Privileged motions, such as "raise a question of privilege" or "call for the orders of the day," hold the highest precedence and can supersede nearly all other business, including debate on a pending motion, to address immediate threats to the assembly's rights or adherence to the agenda. Subsidiary motions follow, ranked internally from highest (e.g., "lay on the table" to set aside temporarily) to lowest (e.g., "postpone indefinitely" to kill without direct vote), each modifiable by higher subsidiary motions like or referral. Main motions, requiring no other business pending, yield to all above them and form the foundation for most substantive actions. This structure, rooted in RONR's principles from its 1876 origins, prevents chaos by enforcing a logical progression: for instance, a motion to adjourn (privileged) can interrupt debate on a main motion to approve a . Interruptibility complements precedence by specifying whether a motion may disrupt ongoing speech or proceedings without unanimous consent or higher intervention. Only privileged motions and select incidental motions (e.g., or parliamentary inquiry) are generally interruptible, meaning they can be raised immediately to correct errors, seek clarification, or address emergencies without waiting for the . For example, a interrupts a speaker to enforce rules but yields to privileged motions if they arise simultaneously; it requires no second and is ruled on by the . Non-privileged motions, like amendments or main motions, cannot and must await recognition after the current speaker yields. This mechanism, designed to balance efficiency with fairness, prohibits dilatory interruptions except in genuine procedural crises, as excessive disruption undermines the assembly's deliberative . The following table summarizes the precedence ranking of key motion classes under RONR, including typical interruptibility:
Motion ClassPrecedence RankExamplesInterruptible?Notes
PrivilegedHighestRaise question of privilege; Call orders of the day; Adjourn; Recess; Raise/end meetingYes (generally, without second)Address urgent rights/agenda; not debatable except question of privilege
Intermediate (internal ranking: lay on table > > limit/re-extend > postpone to time > commit/refer > amend > postpone indefinitely)Amend; Refer to No (requires )Modify main motion; debatable/amendable per type
MainLowestIntroduce new business (e.g., "I move to approve the resolution")NoBlocks only equals/lowers; fully debatable/amendable
IncidentalNone (contextual); ; Suspend rules; Point of informationYes (select ones, e.g., )Arise from other motions; not amendable
Variations exist in adapted rules (e.g., U.S. modifies RONR for filibusters), but core precedence preserves interruptibility for essentials like calls. Misapplication, such as ignoring rank to force interruptions, can lead to appeals or points of order, reinforcing the system's self-correcting nature.

Renewal, Rescission, and Modification

In parliamentary procedure, as outlined in Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised (RONR), renewal refers to the reintroduction of a motion that has been previously defeated or otherwise disposed of, treated as new business in a subsequent session or meeting. This is permissible when the prior decision does not bar further consideration, adhering to the core principle that an assembly cannot be forced to decide substantially the same question more than once in the same session to avoid dilatory repetition. Renewal applies to main motions voted down by less than a two-thirds majority or those failing on a tie, but excludes cases where the motion was adopted or indefinitely postponed in the same session. No specific motion to "renew" exists; instead, any member may simply state the motion anew at an appropriate time, such as during new business, without needing previous notice unless the organization's rules require it. Rescission involves the motion to rescind (or ), which completely annuls a previously adopted action, rendering it void as if it had never been passed. This motion targets main motions, resolutions, or bylaws that have taken effect and requires previous for a vote, a two-thirds vote without notice, or a majority of the entire membership to adopt. It is debatable and amendable, ranking low in precedence, and cannot be applied to actions already executed or those protected by bylaws specifying higher thresholds for change, such as requirements for amendments. Unlike renewal, rescission addresses adopted measures rather than defeats, and its adoption leaves the original record intact but without ongoing force. Modification of prior actions occurs via the motion to amend something previously adopted, which partially alters an existing decision by inserting, striking, substituting, or rephrasing elements without full cancellation. This motion mirrors rescission in its voting requirements—majority with notice, two-thirds without, or majority of membership—and procedural characteristics, including debatability and applicability only to unexecuted or ongoing actions. For example, it can adjust a resolution's amount or deadline but cannot introduce entirely new questions, preserving the original intent while allowing adaptation to changed circumstances. Both rescission and modification motions protect against hasty reversals by demanding higher thresholds than standard main motions, ensuring stability in assembly decisions unless significant consensus exists for change.

Tactical and Strategic Applications

Legitimate Strategic Uses

In , legitimate strategic uses of motions enable assemblies to refine proposals, manage debate efficiently, and ensure decisions reflect informed majority will while safeguarding minority input, as outlined in standard guides like . These applications leverage the hierarchy of subsidiary and privileged motions to support or defeat main motions without dilatory intent, promoting orderly progress toward resolution. For instance, motions with higher precedence can interrupt lower ones to address timing, expertise needs, or consensus thresholds, thereby facilitating causal links between deliberation and action rather than stalling them. The motion to amend serves as a core strategic tool by permitting modifications to a main motion's text, scope, or intent, allowing members to enhance feasibility or expose weaknesses through "hostile amendments" that test viability via . This legitimately aids by broadening appeal or defeat by rendering the proposal untenable, countered only by further amendments or referral, ensuring the assembly hones ideas empirically before voting. Referral to a strategically delegates complex matters for specialized scrutiny, investigation, or redrafting, which refines proposals with data or expert input unavailable in full session and prevents premature votes on underdeveloped ideas. Assemblies can specify reporting deadlines to maintain momentum, making this motion effective for causal realism in by linking broad to detailed . Motions to postpone to a certain time or postpone indefinitely provide deferral strategies: the former delays for improved attendance, new evidence, or "cooling off" to enable better-informed votes, while the latter gauges opposition strength without direct rejection, allowing withdrawal if support wanes. Both advance business by aligning timing with readiness, though they require majority approval to avoid minority veto power. To control pacing, the motion to limit or extend limits of debate adjusts speech durations or total time, legitimately curbing redundancy when discussion stalls progress or extending for unresolved complexities, thus balancing thoroughness with efficiency. The previous question, requiring a two-thirds vote, ends to compel immediate voting, strategically invoked when a deems further talk unproductive, forcing closure on polarized items. The motion to lay on the table temporarily shelves a main motion for urgent interruptions, preserving it for resumption after addressing priorities like emergencies, which strategically reallocates focus without permanent loss. Similarly, objecting to the consideration of a main motion, needing two-thirds rejection, preempts debate on patently harmful proposals, protecting assembly resources for substantive work. These tactics, rooted in precedence rules, ensure procedural tools serve empirical deliberation over evasion.

Dilatory Tactics and Abuses

Dilatory tactics in involve the strategic or abusive use of motions, points of order, or other procedural devices primarily to delay or obstruct the assembly's business rather than to advance a substantive purpose. Under Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised (RONR), a motion is deemed dilatory if it is frivolous, absurd, contains no rational , or seeks to thwart the assembly's clearly indicated will, such as by repeatedly raising the same point or appealing an obvious ruling of the . The chair holds authority to rule such motions out of order immediately, without debate or vote, to prevent time-wasting, as entertaining them would itself obstruct proceedings. Common examples include the repeated motion to postpone indefinitely on a measure already defeated, demands for unnecessary division of the question to prolong voting, or frequent calls for verification of a when no genuine doubt exists. In the U.S. , motions to adjourn have historically been scrutinized as potentially dilatory if moved solely to evade action, though once entertained by the Speaker, they cannot later be challenged on dilatory grounds under precedents established in the early . Similarly, in assemblies following RONR, tactics like insisting on reading lengthy documents already distributed or raising points of order on trivial matters exemplify abuses that the chair must suppress to maintain efficiency. Such practices exploit procedural rules designed for minority protection, often by a faction seeking to frustrate the majority's intent without altering outcomes through legitimate debate. Abuses of dilatory tactics can escalate to broader obstructionism, prompting disciplinary measures. In RONR-governed bodies, persistent offenders risk the assembly's or removal from membership via a vote, as repeated frivolous motions violate the fundamental principle of in proceedings. In the U.S. , House rules explicitly prohibit the Speaker from entertaining dilatory motions, with violations potentially leading to referral to the on Ethics for investigation under standards prohibiting actions that "reflect discreditably" on the , as codified in Clause 3 of Rule XI since 2008. Historical precedents, such as the House's 1910 adoption of rules curbing dilatory appeals during calendar Wednesdays, illustrate ongoing adaptations to curb minority exploitation of motions for delay. While these safeguards promote dispatch, they rely on the chair's impartial enforcement; lax application can enable a determined minority to consume disproportionate time, as seen in extended quorum calls or serial amendments in legislative settings.

Criticisms and Limitations

Common Misuses and Procedural Rigidity

One frequent misuse involves the improper invocation of "calling the question," where members erroneously believe that simply stating the phrase immediately ends , whereas it requires a formal motion, a second, and a two-thirds vote to close under standard parliamentary authorities. Similarly, motions to "table" are often misapplied to indefinitely postpone items rather than their proper use for temporarily setting aside matters during a session, leading to unintended burial of proposals. Another error occurs when discussion proceeds without a pending motion, violating the principle that must attach to a specific proposal, which dilutes focus and allows unstructured airing of grievances. Procedural rigidity manifests in the inflexible of motions and strict sequencing requirements, which can prolong deliberations and stifle adaptability in smaller or informal assemblies. Critics argue that such rules, as codified in longstanding manuals, prioritize adversarial over collaborative efficiency, resulting in meetings that favor procedural expertise over substantive consensus. For instance, the requirement for precise wording and immediate challenges via points of order demands high familiarity, enabling skilled participants to exploit technicalities while marginalizing novices, thus undermining equitable participation. This rigidity has drawn scrutiny for contributing to legislative , as seen in adaptations of these procedures in bodies like the U.S. Congress, where layered precedents amplify delays without corresponding gains in deliberation quality.

Obstructionism in Practice

In parliamentary assemblies, obstructionism through motions typically involves dilatory tactics such as repeated calls for division, points of order, or amendments designed not to advance but to exhaust time limits and forestall votes on bills or resolutions. These practices leverage procedural rules to amplify , often at the expense of majority will and legislative efficiency, as evidenced by historical episodes where sessions extended into days or nights without resolution. A prominent example occurred in the U.S. , where filibusters—encompassing prolonged speeches, serial amendments, and other motions to delay—have blocked civil rights and economic legislation for decades. The tactic traces to the 1806 deletion of the motion, enabling unlimited debate; by the early , it routinely stalled proceedings, prompting the 1917 adoption of requiring a two-thirds vote to end debate. In practice, filibusters consumed over 100 hours of Senate floor time in the 1950s alone on civil rights measures, with senators reading irrelevant texts or tag-teaming speeches to maintain obstruction. In the UK , obstructionist motions for adjournment were abusively deployed by Irish Nationalist MPs in the 1880s to protest land and policies, forcing exhaustive divisions and all-night sittings. On February 26, 1880, during debates on Estimates, initiated obstruction via repeated motions and divisions, extending proceedings until 7 a.m. and involving 17 votes, which highlighted how such tactics could paralyze the agenda until procedural reforms like time limits were imposed in 1887. Similar abuses persisted into the early , with opposition parties mirroring tactics post-1910 to counter government majorities. Cross-nationally, procedural obstruction via motions has surfaced in assemblies like Japan's , where minority factions prolong committee stages with endless amendments, and in European parliaments, where points of order interrupt plenary sessions to delay votes on budgets or treaties. These instances underscore a causal dynamic: without strict time allocation or thresholds, motions intended for orderly conduct enable minority vetoes, often prioritizing partisan delay over empirical policy evaluation.

Variations Across Jurisdictions

United States (Robert's Rules and Congressional Adaptations)

In the , Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised (RONR), originally published in 1876 by and updated through its 12th edition in 2020, provides the foundational framework for handling motions in most non-legislative deliberative assemblies, such as corporate boards, nonprofits, and voluntary organizations. Motions under RONR are formal proposals for action, classified into main motions (to introduce substantive business), subsidiary motions (to modify or dispose of other motions, such as to amend, postpone indefinitely, or refer to ), privileged motions (relating to assembly rights, like to adjourn or recess), and incidental motions (arising from other proceedings, such as points of order or appeals from the 's ruling). The standard process requires a member to obtain the floor, state "I move that..." for the motion, secure a second, allow the chair to restate it, (with limitations on speakers alternating between sides and relevance enforced), and vote, typically by majority unless a higher threshold like two-thirds is specified for motions limiting debate or amending bylaws. RONR emphasizes precedence among motions—higher-ranking ones can interrupt lower ones—and prohibits renewal of defeated motions in the same session to prevent dilatory repetition, promoting efficient while protecting through debate and amendment opportunities. The U.S. adapts parliamentary motion procedures from British traditions and early American precedents, as codified in chamber-specific standing rules, rather than adhering strictly to RONR, which RONR itself deems unsuitable for large legislative bodies due to their need for specialized controls on , amendments, and scheduling. In the , rules established under the and annually adopted (e.g., the 118th rules effective January 3, 2023), incorporate motions like the motion to recommit (to return a bill to , often with instructions, requiring vote), the motion for the (to end and amendments, needing ), and the motion to lay on the table (which kills the measure, unlike RONR's temporary postponement). House procedures emphasize germaneness for amendments (not required in RONR for main motions) and rely on special rules from the Rules Committee to structure , limiting amendments and waiving points of order, which streamlines legislative volume but contrasts with RONR's more egalitarian floor access. The Senate's rules, rooted in practices from 1789 and amended sporadically (e.g., cloture threshold changes), permit unlimited debate absent objection, making motions like (invoked by 60 votes since a 1975 amendment to require three-fifths of senators duly chosen) essential to end filibusters and force votes on measures or , differing from RONR's simpler motion that closes debate by majority without hurdles. Senate motions often proceed via requests, bypassing formal seconding and voting sequences in RONR, to expedite business among 100 members, though formal motions to table (killing items) or to strike retain majority thresholds. These adaptations prioritize minority protections against majority haste—evident in the Senate's higher bar for invoking order—over RONR's focus on prompt resolution, reflecting Congress's constitutional role in lawmaking amid partisan dynamics, where precedents from rulings by presiding officers or parliamentarians supplement written rules.

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, motions form the basis of business in both the House of Commons and House of Lords, governed by standing orders, accumulated precedents, and the authoritative guide Erskine May: Parliamentary Practice rather than a comprehensive codified manual like . A motion constitutes a formal proposal advanced by a member for debate, expression of opinion, or decision by the House, requiring it to be explicitly moved before any discussion or vote can commence. Substantive motions, defined as self-contained proposals capable of yielding a resolution or order, predominate and typically call for specific action or articulate a policy stance; these are overwhelmingly initiated by the government to advance its agenda, with opposition parties tabling them on designated Opposition Days (usually 17 per session under Standing Order No. 14), and backbench members accessing them via the Backbench Business Committee for limited debate time. The procedure for handling motions emphasizes expedition and governmental prerogative over the order paper. A member, selected by the Speaker, rises to move the motion formally—often integrating it into their opening speech—without the need for seconding, diverging from practices in assemblies requiring explicit support from another member to proceed. The Speaker then proposes the question from the Chair, opening the floor to debate, during which amendments may be tabled and selected by the Speaker for consideration; only selected amendments are printed and eligible for vote. Debate concludes with a division (physical or electronic vote) or voice vote on the motion as amended, if applicable, unless interrupted by procedural motions such as closure (to end debate prematurely, requiring a 100-member threshold for debate and simple majority approval) or adjournment (a dilatory tactic to suspend proceedings without resolution). Government motions, including programme orders and allocation-of-time motions (colloquially "guillotines"), are frequently applied without debate post-second reading to constrain scrutiny on bills, reflecting the executive's dominance in scheduling since the 20th century. Distinctive features include Early Day Motions (EDMs), non-binding proposals tabled without fixed debate dates, limited to 250 words and phrased as "That this ...", primarily serving to signal cross-party support or highlight issues rather than compel action—over 20,000 were tabled in the 2019-2024 Parliament, though fewer than 1% prompted debate. In the , motions follow analogous steps but eschew seconding except for the Humble Address replying to the King's Speech, with greater emphasis on advisory resolutions given the unelected chamber's role. Procedural flexibility allows the Speaker's discretion in selecting motions amid heavy governmental control, contrasting with more egalitarian motion handling in non-sovereign assemblies, and underscores the system's evolution toward efficiency over exhaustive deliberation since the curtailed Lords' veto powers.

Continental European Systems (e.g., Netherlands)

In continental European parliamentary systems, motions serve predominantly as mechanisms for legislative oversight of the executive, urging governments to pursue or abstain from particular courses of action, rather than primarily regulating internal deliberative processes as in Anglo-Saxon traditions. This reflects the civil law heritage and consensus-oriented governance prevalent in countries like the , , and , where parliaments emphasize policy influence over procedural formalism. Motions are often non-binding but carry significant political weight, fostering in multi-party coalitions. In the ' House of (Tweede Kamer), any member may table a motion (motie) during debates on pertinent matters to articulate opinions, request initiatives, or halt proposed actions. Motions require seconding by at least four other members, must be concise, clear, written, and signed, and follow standard phrasing such as requesting the to act while proceeding to other business. Article 66 of the Rules of Procedure governs their handling: they are read aloud by the proposer, debated, and voted upon, potentially lapsing if not resolved within two months unless the House decides otherwise; direct adoption is possible if the relevant minister concurs without objection. Restrictions prohibit motions in initial debate phases unrelated to prior consultations or in certain settings, such as standard committee deliberations. Though not legally enforceable, adopted motions generate political pressure on the government to comply, as evidenced by their structured role in encoding negotiations amid the ' fragmented party system. Motions of no confidence, tabled for ministerial disapproval, pass by simple majority and conventionally prompt , underscoring parliament's indirect control in this executive-dominant framework. This approach aligns with broader continental practices, as in Germany's , where substantive motions (Anträge) propose policy resolutions voted upon after debate, with procedural variants taking precedence only in specific contexts like closure or adjournment.

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