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John Skenandoa (/ˌskɛnənˈdoʊə/; c. 1706[1] – March 11, 1816), also called Shenandoah (/ˌʃɛnənˈdoʊə/) among other forms, was an elected chief (a so-called "pine tree chief") of the Oneida. He was born into the Iroquoian-speaking Susquehannocks, but was adopted into the Oneida of the Iroquois Confederacy. When he later accepted Christianity, he was baptized as "John", taking his Oneida name Skenandoa as his surname. Based on a possible reconstruction of his name in its original Oneida, he is sometimes called "Oskanondonha" in modern scholarship. His tombstone bears the spelling Schenando (/ˈʃɛnəndoʊ, ˈskɛn-/).

Key Information

During the colonial years, Skenandoa supported the English against the French in the Seven Years' War. Later, during the American Revolutionary War, he supported the colonials and led a force of 250 Oneida and Tuscarora warriors in western New York in their support. He met George Washington, who wrote at least one letter of recommendation for him.[2]

A longtime friend of the minister Samuel Kirkland, a founder of Hamilton College, his request to be buried next to Kirkland was granted. In the funeral procession at the death of Skenandoa together were Oneida, students and officers from Hamilton College, Kirkland's widow and her family, and many citizens of Clinton, New York.

Name

[edit]

Skenandoa's name is variously recorded; "Shenandoah" has become the most famous form, used in many versions of the folk song "O Shenandoah", where the words "O Shenandoah, I love your daughter" and "The chief disdained the trader's dollars: / 'My daughter never you shall follow'" are found. Other forms include Skenandoah or Scanandoa; Schenandoah, Schenandoa, Shenondoa, Shanandoah, or Shanendoah; Skenando or Scanondo; Schenando; Skenandore; and Skennondon, Scanandon, Skonondon, or Skeanendon.

The origin of Skenandoa's name is uncertain. The spelling Oskanondonha (which was not recorded in his lifetime) assumes derivation from Oneida oskanu:tú: [oˌskanũːˈtũː], "deer".[3][4] However, Skenandoa referred to himself as "an aged hemlock",[5][6] and the Oneida word for "hemlock" is kanʌʔtú:saʔ [ˌkanə̃ʔˈtũːsaʔ];[7] this derivation has had a longer tradition of acceptance.[5][8]

Life

[edit]

Skenandoa was born in 1710 into the Iroquoian-speaking Susquehannock people (also called Conestoga), located in present-day eastern Pennsylvania. He was adopted into the Oneida people, one of the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy.

As an adult man, he was notable for his height,[9] estimated to be 6'5," and was said to have a commanding presence. The Oneida elected him as a "Pine Tree Chief", in recognition of his leadership and contribution to the tribe. This position allowed him a place in the Grand Council of 50 chiefs of the Confederacy, representing all the clans of all the nations. It was not hereditary, nor could Skenandoa name a successor.[10] The name referred to a man being recognized as a chief and rising up inside the tribe.[10]

During the Seven Years' War (also called the French and Indian War in the United States), Chief Skenandoa favored the British against the French and led the Oneida in their support in central New York. He was said to have saved German colonists in German Flatts, in the Mohawk Valley, from a massacre.[11]

During the next decades, he formed more alliances with the ethnic German and British colonists in central and western New York.

Samuel Kirkland, a Protestant missionary who went to the Iroquois country of western New York in 1764, encountered Chief Skenandoa there and mentioned him in letters. Kirkland returned to the area in 1766 and worked with the Oneida for the remainder of his life. After Kirkland persuaded the chief to become baptized, Skenandoa took the name "John". Many of the Oneida converted to Christianity in the decade before the American Revolutionary War.[11]

In part due to the friendship with Kirkland, Chief Skenandoa favored the patriot colonials and led the Oneida to be their allies during the Revolutionary War. He led many Oneida to fight against the British and their Iroquois allies, who came from four nations of the Confederacy. Chief Skenandoa commanded 250 warriors from the Oneida and Tuscarora tribes.[11][12] In the 1800s New York Governor Daniel D. Tompkins gave him a silver pipe in recognition of his contributions. Today it is displayed at Shako:wi, the Oneida Nation museum at their reservation near Syracuse.[13]

Mohawk war leader Joseph Brant, who allied with the British during the revolution, had Skenandoa jailed at Fort Niagara for a period in 1779 during the war when the Oneida chief was on a peace mission to the Iroquois. Brant hoped that the British could help contain colonial encroachment against the Iroquois.

After the war, Kirkland continued to minister to the Oneida. About 1791 he started planning a seminary, a boys' school to be open to Oneida as well as white young men of the area. In 1793 he received a charter from the state for the Hamilton Oneida Seminary, and in 1794 completed its first building, known as Oneida Hall.[11] By 1812, the seminary developed as the four-year institution known as Hamilton College.

Skenandoa lived into great old age. Nearing the end of his life and having gone blind,[14] the chief is recorded as having said:

I am an aged hemlock. I am dead at the top. The winds of an hundred winters have whistled through my branches. Why my Jesus keeps me here so long, I cannot conceive. Pray ye to him, that I may have patience to endure till my time may come.[5][6]

After Skenandoah died in 1816 at well over a hundred years old, he was buried upon his request (and with the Kirkland family's approval) next to his friend Kirkland, who had died in 1808, on the grounds of Kirkland's home in Clinton, New York.[11][12] Today the property is known as Harding Farm. As a measure of the respect for the chief, the procession at his funeral in 1816 included students and officers from Hamilton College, the widow Mrs. Kirkland and other members of her family, and numerous town residents, in addition to his son and members of his family and nation.[11] In 1851, both bodies were reinterred in the cemetery of Hamilton College, of which Kirkland was a co-founder.

Legacy and honors

[edit]

The Oneida oral tradition tells that Chief Skenandoa provided critical food, sending corn to General George Washington and his men during their harsh winter at Valley Forge in 1777–1778. Washington is said to have named the Shenandoah River and valley in his honor,[15][16] and subsequently numerous other places in the United States were named Shenandoah. He is also referred to in the title and lyrics of the folk song "Oh Shenandoah".

A monument to Skenandoa was erected by the Northern Missionary Society at the Hamilton College cemetery. Its inscription recognizes his leadership, friendship with Kirkland, and important contributions to the rebel colonists during the war.[11]

In 2002 he was inducted into the Hall of Fame of the Oneida County Historical Society.[17]

The Oneida performer-composer Joanne Shenandoah (1957–2021) was a descendant of Chief Shenandoah.

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Skenandoa

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from Grokipedia
Skenandoa (c. 1706 – March 11, 1816), also known as Shenandoah or John Skenandoa, was a sachem and chief warrior of the Oneida Nation who forged an alliance with the American Patriots during the Revolutionary War, leading Oneida forces in support of colonial victories and aiding in the survival of his people amid Iroquois divisions. Born around 1706 in the Pennsylvania Colony to the Susquehannock (Conestoga) tribe, Skenandoa—whose birth name was Oskanondonha—was adopted as a youth into the Oneida wolf clan of the Iroquois (Haudenosaunee) Confederacy, rising to leadership through merit despite customary barriers to hereditary titles for those of foreign origin. As wampum keeper and representative at intertribal and colonial councils, he stood nearly 6 feet 5 inches tall and cultivated a lifelong friendship with missionary Samuel Kirkland starting in 1766, which influenced his pro-colonial stance against British policies. During the , Skenandoa persuaded the Oneida to back the Patriots as their "First Allies," dispatching warriors to battles such as Oriskany and Saratoga, delivering intelligence from , preventing settler massacres like at German Flats, and supplying provisions despite British raids on Oneida lands; his son even served in George Washington's army at . In 1780, he traveled to to negotiate Oneida neutrality but was imprisoned by the British for five months, later attending pro-British councils under duress until his release via the 1784 . Post-war, he signed key agreements including the Veteran's Treaty acknowledging Oneida sacrifices and the 1794 affirming tribal sovereignty and land rights, while hosting U.S. envoys like for compensation discussions. Renowned for his —living to about 110 years and witnessing six generations—Skenandoa embodied resilience, once likening himself to "an aged hemlock... dead at the top" amid shifting eras, and his laid groundwork for modern Oneida sovereignty through strategic alliances and diplomatic foresight. Known as the "white man's friend" for his commitment to freedom under ancestral laws, he left an estimated 10,000 descendants and a legacy of military vigor and intertribal navigation.

Origins and Early Life

Birth and Tribal Adoption

Skenandoa, originally known as Oskanondonha, was born around 1706 in Conestoga, , within territory. The , an -speaking people, had been decimated by disease and warfare, with survivors incorporating into other tribes, including remnants at Conestoga villages allied with the Confederacy. As a child, Skenandoa was captured during a raid—likely by Iroquois forces—and adopted into the Oneida Nation, one of the Six Nations of the Confederacy, specifically into the Wolf Clan. This adoption integrated him fully into Oneida society, where captives were often raised as tribal members, erasing prior affiliations through ritual processes emphasizing kinship and loyalty. By adulthood, he identified as Oneida, rising through merit in warfare and diplomacy rather than birthright.

Name and Identity

Skenandoa, whose Oneida name is commonly rendered as such in English sources, was originally born Oskanondonha circa 1706 among the (also known as Conestoga), an Iroquoian-speaking tribe then residing in present-day . During a period of Susquehannock decline amid intertribal conflicts and European pressures in the early , he was adopted into the Oneida Nation's wolf clan, one of the six nations of the Confederacy (Haudenosaunee). This adoption integrated him fully into Oneida society, conferring his subsequent identity as a tribal leader and warrior, distinct from his natal Susquehannock origins. The etymology of Skenandoa derives possibly from the Oneida term oskanutú, signifying "deer," reflecting attributes of agility and vigilance associated with the animal in Iroquoian cultural symbolism. Alternative spellings and anglicized forms include Shenandoah, Skenandoah, and Schenando, the latter of which appears in some colonial correspondence; these variations arose from phonetic transcriptions by European scribes unfamiliar with Iroquoian . His name thus encapsulated his adopted Oneida identity, emblematic of clan-based lineage and personal prowess rather than hereditary , as Oneida often emphasized merit and consensus. In later life, following —likely influenced by contacts in the mid-18th century—Skenandoa received the baptismal name John, adopting "Skenandoa" as his in the European convention. This dual nomenclature underscored his bridging role between indigenous traditions and colonial interactions, while his primary identity remained that of a "pine tree chief," an elected position among the Oneida focused on and counsel rather than war leadership.

Rise to Leadership

Pre-Revolutionary Career and Military Exploits

Skenandoa, originally born into the tribe around 1706 and later adopted into the Oneida wolf clan, emerged as a prominent warrior through his demonstrated prowess in intertribal and colonial conflicts prior to the . His early military reputation was solidified during the (1754–1763), part of the broader , where he aligned the Oneida with British forces against the French and their allied Native nations. Leading Oneida war parties, Skenandoa conducted raids and skirmishes that contributed to British successes in the region, earning him recognition as a chief warrior among the Oneida for his martial achievements. At approximately 6 feet 5 inches tall, Skenandoa's imposing physical presence enhanced his stature as a leader capable of inspiring warriors in battle. As a "pine tree chief"—a merit-based, non-hereditary position within the Confederacy selected for exceptional service—he further demonstrated strategic acumen in post-war tensions, including (1763–1766), where Oneida forces under leaders like him resisted broader Native uprisings against British expansion while maintaining tribal alliances. These exploits not only fortified his influence within the Oneida but also positioned him as a key intermediary in dealings with European powers, though his primary pre-revolutionary focus remained on defending interests through armed action.

Relations with European Powers

Skenandoa's interactions with European powers centered on alliances formed amid British-French colonial rivalries in . As a rising Oneida leader within the Iroquois Confederacy, he favored British interests, viewing them as bulwarks against French expansion and their allied Indigenous groups, which threatened Iroquoian territories in the and St. Lawrence regions. This alignment reflected broader Iroquois diplomacy under the treaty system with the British, though Skenandoa distinguished himself through direct military involvement rather than solely council negotiations. In (1744–1748), part of the larger , Skenandoa fought alongside British colonial forces against French troops and their Canadian allies. His warriors engaged in skirmishes that contributed to British successes, such as the capture of Louisbourg in 1745, fostering goodwill with British officials who valued Oneida scouting and raiding capabilities. These exploits earned him the name Skenandoa—translating to "Deer" in Oneida, evoking swift and elusive combat prowess—and elevated his standing as a war chief. Skenandoa extended this support into the (1754–1763), the North American theater of the Seven Years' War. He led Oneida war parties in ambushes and reconnaissance missions against French forts and supply lines, including operations near Lake George and the Ohio Valley, aiding British commanders like Sir William Johnson. Despite neutrality efforts fracturing under pressure, Skenandoa's pro-British stance helped secure Oneida contingents for key victories, such as the 1759 , though it strained relations with French-allied nations like the Huron and Algonquin. British authorities reciprocated with trade goods and protection promises, reinforcing his loyalty to the Crown prior to revolutionary tensions.

Involvement in the American Revolution

Decision to Ally with Colonists

Skenandoa, as a prominent Oneida , played a pivotal role in the Oneida Nation's departure from the Confederacy's initial neutrality stance at the onset of the in 1775. While the Haudenosaunee () nations collectively sought to avoid entanglement in the conflict between Britain and its colonies, internal pressures and external influences prompted the Oneidas—under Skenandoa's leadership—to align with the patriot cause by early 1777. This decision diverged from the majority of nations (Mohawk, Seneca, Cayuga, and Onondaga), which ultimately supported the British Crown. The alliance was heavily shaped by Skenandoa's close relationship with Reverend Samuel Kirkland, a Congregational who had resided among the Oneidas since 1766 and converted Skenandoa to around 1770. Kirkland, aligned with patriot interests, argued that British policies—such as the 1768 Treaty of , which diminished Oneida land autonomy under British Superintendent Sir William Johnson—threatened indigenous sovereignty more than colonial expansion. Through persistent counsel and shared bonds, Kirkland convinced Skenandoa that supporting the colonists would safeguard Oneida long-term interests against British overreach, framing the conflict as a fight against tyranny that resonated with Skenandoa's prior alliances with settlers, including aid to German Flatts residents in the during earlier raids. Skenandoa's advocacy overcame intra-tribal hesitations and confederacy opposition, leading to formal Oneida commitments by spring 1777, evidenced by their scouting and combat aid at the on August 6, 1777. This choice reflected pragmatic realism: British alliances offered short-term gains but risked cultural erosion, whereas patriot ties promised reciprocal protections, as later affirmed by George Washington's correspondence praising Oneida fidelity. However, the decision invited retaliation, including British-allied destruction of Oneida settlements, underscoring the high stakes Skenandoa weighed in prioritizing alliance over confederacy unity.

Specific Military Contributions

Skenandoa directed Oneida military efforts in support of the Continental Army during the campaigns of 1777, facilitating the deployment of warriors as scouts, spies, and combatants despite his advanced age of approximately 71 years. Under his leadership influence, about 60 Oneida warriors joined General Nicholas Herkimer's Tryon County militia at the on August 6, 1777, where they ambushed British-allied forces attempting to relieve the siege of ; Oneida scout Han Yerry Tewahangarahken personally killed nine enemies in the engagement, contributing to the tactical disruption of British advances. He personally aided intelligence operations by delivering scouting reports to missionary Samuel Kirkland, who relayed critical information on enemy movements to American officers defending during the same 1777 siege. Skenandoa's strategic counsel helped sustain Oneida commitments, enabling up to 150 warriors to harass British posts and support General in the later that year, which culminated in the surrender of British General on October 17, 1777. In the winter of 1777–1778, Skenandoa endorsed the dispatch of Oneida contingents, including one of his sons, to General George Washington's encampment at , where they served as scouts patrolling for threats and supplemented Continental supplies amid severe shortages. These warriors, numbering around 50, later fought under the Marquis de Lafayette at the on May 20, 1778, providing reconnaissance that helped evade a larger British force near . His efforts prioritized defensive actions against British incursions into Oneida territory, though direct combat participation by Skenandoa himself diminished due to his longevity and focus on tribal coordination.

Intra-Tribal Divisions and Opposition

Skenandoa's advocacy for alliance with the American colonists fractured unity within the Oneida tribe and the broader Confederacy. While he commanded significant influence as a and wampum keeper, a minority faction of Oneida warriors, estimated at fewer than 100, aligned with British forces, often swayed by kinship ties to Mohawk leaders like . This internal schism manifested acutely during the on August 6, 1777, where pro-Patriot Oneida under leaders like Hanyery fought alongside Continental forces against a British-Mohawk , while some Oneida kin supported the opposing side, resulting in familial bloodshed. Opposition intensified from other Iroquois nations, particularly the Mohawk, who viewed the Oneida's defection as a of confederacy neutrality urged at councils in 1775 and 1777. Mohawk raids devastated Oneida settlements, burning villages and crops in retaliatory campaigns from 1778 onward, exacerbating hardships for Skenandoa's followers. In early 1780, Brant captured Skenandoa and the Tuscarora-aligned Good Peter during a , detaining them harshly to coerce allegiance; Skenandoa feigned compliance but escaped to resume pro-American efforts upon release. These divisions undermined the longhouse governance, pitting Oneida and Tuscarora against Mohawk, Seneca, Cayuga, and Onondaga, in what amounted to an intra-confederacy conflict that weakened power post-war. Skenandoa's persistence rallied approximately 250 Oneida and Tuscarora warriors for key engagements, such as the relief of , but at the cost of enduring tribal reprisals and personal enmity from Brant, who branded him a traitor. Despite this, his leadership solidified the pro-Patriot majority among Oneida, prioritizing long-term survival over confederacy cohesion amid encroaching settler pressures.

Later Years and Death

Post-War Activities and Tribal Role

Following the Treaty of on October 22, 1784, between the and the Six Nations, Skenandoah was released from British captivity at , where he had been held during the war's later stages, allowing his return to Oneida leadership amid tribal recovery from Sullivan's Expedition devastations. Despite initial reproach from some Oneida members for his perceived collaboration with British forces while captive, his prestige as a pre-war and pro-American advocate enabled him to resume influence within the Wolf Clan and broader tribal councils. In 1794, Skenandoah hosted U.S. envoy at his home to negotiate compensation for Oneida wartime sacrifices and losses as American allies, underscoring his diplomatic role in securing redress from the federal government. He participated in the , signed November 11, 1794, which affirmed Oneida sovereignty, land rights, and exemption from state taxes, contributing to the tribe's post-war stability. Additionally, he endorsed the Veteran's Treaty, which acknowledged Oneida military aid to the Continental Army, further cementing U.S. recognition of tribal contributions. As keeper, Skenandoah maintained sacred records of intertribal and diplomatic agreements, inaugurating formal government-to-government protocols that preserved Oneida autonomy and non-interference principles with the . His advocacy for adherence to ancestral governance rules supported tribal cohesion and prosperity amid land pressures, positioning him as a pivotal figure—often called the "white man's friend"—in navigating relations between the Oneida and expanding American settlements.

Longevity and Final Years

Skenandoah attained remarkable , reportedly living to the age of 110, a claim corroborated by contemporary accounts and historical records of his death in 1816. Born around 1706, he outlived most of his peers and contemporaries, including other Revolutionary-era leaders, embodying a self-described of resilience: "I am an aged hemlock; the winds of an hundred winters have whistled through my branches. I am dead at the top." Such advanced age for the era underscores his enduring presence among the Oneida, though exact birth records are absent, relying on oral traditions and later enumerations. In his final years, Skenandoah resided in a large, red wood-framed house constructed in 1785 near Oneida Castle in , where he continued to host distinguished visitors, including New York Governor in 1810. Earlier post-war efforts included aiding negotiations for Oneida compensation for Revolutionary losses, such as hosting U.S. envoy at his home in 1794 to discuss wartime damages. Despite initial postwar tensions from his 1780–1784 captivity by British-allied forces—during which he was compelled to appear pro-British—he regained influence as a , supporting his people's recovery amid land pressures and cultural shifts, including his own in 1767 under Reverend Samuel Kirkland. Skenandoah died on March 11, 1816, at his Oneida Castle residence. Per his wishes, he was initially buried beside Kirkland on the latter's property (later known as Harding Farm); his remains were reinterred in 1856 at Cemetery in , New York. His longevity and steadfast role positioned him as a living link to pre-colonial Oneida traditions through the early American republic.

Legacy and Assessment

Recognition and Honors

Skenandoa received posthumous recognition for his and with the American colonists, primarily through monuments erected by historical societies and institutions. In 1912, the Skenandoah Chapter of the dedicated the Skenandoah Boulder, a 7-ton erratic boulder with an engraved tablet, at the site of his final home near Genesee Street in Oneida Castle, New York. The inscription praises him as "the white man’s friend", recounts his entertainment of Governor in 1810, notes his death there in 1816 at age 110, and describes his burial procession to Hamilton College Cemetery beside missionary Kirkland. A monument over Skenandoa's grave in Cemetery, , New York, was erected by the Northern Missionary Society and dedicated in 1873, honoring his role as an Oneida chief. The original gravestone, which had weathered, was replaced in 1999 through collaboration between and Oneida representatives to preserve the site's historical integrity. Additionally, a 2,200-pound titled Allies in , Partners in , featuring Skenandoa alongside Oneida interpreter Polly Cooper, was donated by the and installed in 2018 at the Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian, symbolizing the Oneida's Revolutionary War contributions.

Historical Impact and Criticisms

Skenandoa's alliance with the American colonists had a profound impact on the Revolutionary War's northern theater, as his persuasive leadership convinced the Oneida Nation—estimated at around 600 warriors—to provide critical support, including scouts, provisions, and combatants numbering up to 250 Oneida and Tuscarora fighters in key engagements such as the on August 6, 1777. This assistance helped repel British advances along the , safeguarding strategic points like and indirectly facilitating American victories at Saratoga later that year by disrupting British supply lines and unified Indigenous opposition. By breaking from the Confederacy's initial neutrality and majority pro-British leanings—shared by the Mohawk, Seneca, Cayuga, and Onondaga—Skenandoa's stance fractured Haudenosaunee unity, preventing a cohesive front that could have severed colonial communications and potentially altered the war's outcome in the region. Post-war, his efforts contributed to Oneida recognition in treaties like (1784), which ceded British-claimed lands but affirmed Oneida , and Canandaigua (1794), where the U.S. acknowledged their alliance and territorial rights. However, these gains proved fragile, as settler encroachments and internal land sales reduced Oneida holdings from over 6 million acres in 1788 to fragmented reservations by the 1820s, exacerbating and displacement despite Skenandoa's advocacy for treaty adherence until his death in 1816. Criticisms of Skenandoa's decision primarily emanate from perspectives within the broader Iroquois Confederacy, where leaders like Mohawk chief Joseph Brant condemned the Oneida shift as a betrayal that ignited inter-nation conflict, including raids that razed Oneida villages and caused significant casualties during the war. This division weakened the Confederacy's power, leading to accelerated land losses across Haudenosaunee territories after 1783, as American expansion proceeded unchecked without unified resistance. Some contemporary accounts and later analyses suggest that adherence to initial neutrality declarations might have mitigated wartime devastation for the Oneida, avoiding the destruction of their communities and the post-war legal battles over violations. Within the Oneida, opposition factions viewed the alliance as overly influenced by missionary Samuel Kirkland, prioritizing Christian ties over traditional confederacy obligations, though Skenandoa's personal authority largely prevailed.

References

  1. https://www.nps.gov/people/skenandoah.htm
  2. https://www.oneidaindiannation.com/chiefshenendoah/
  3. https://www.conestogasusquehannocktribe.com/john-skenandoah
  4. https://www.oneidaindiannation.com/the-skenandoah-boulder-honors-instrumental-oneida-leader/
  5. http://greatwarriorspath.blogspot.com/2016/06/great-leader-john-skenandoa-of-oneida.html
  6. https://www.oneidaindiannation.com/a-1912-tribute-to-chief-shenendoah/
  7. https://www.behindthename.com/name/skenandoa
  8. https://www.familysearch.org/en/surname?surname=Skenandore
  9. https://susqnha.org/riverroots-pontiacs-war-and-the-paxton-boys/
  10. https://balladofamerica.org/shenandoah/
  11. https://www.nps.gov/articles/the-oneida-nation-in-the-american-revolution.htm
  12. https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/oneida
  13. https://www.nps.gov/people/reverend-samuel-kirkland.htm
  14. https://www.oneidaindiannation.com/revolutionarywar/
  15. https://www.oneidaindiannation.com/the-oriskany-battle-of-oneida-hanyery-and-mohawk-joseph-brant/
  16. https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/the-six-nations-confederacy-during-the-american-revolution.htm
  17. https://www.oneidaindiannation.com/allies-in-war-partners-in-peace/
  18. https://accessgenealogy.com/new-york/skenandoahs-grave-hamilton-college-clinton-new-york.htm
  19. https://www.hamilton.edu/news/story/walking-closely-again-new-tombstone-at-hamilton-college-for-oneida-chief
  20. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/blogs/national-museum-american-indian/2018/03/15/oneida-nation-aids-american-revolution/
  21. https://history.nycourts.gov/the-oneida-indian-nation-americas-first-ally-a-history-no-longer-ignored/
  22. https://dcc.newberry.org/?p=14446
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