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President of Somalia
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The Somali Democratic Republic (Somali: Jamhuuriyadda Dimuqraadiga Soomaaliyeed; Arabic: جمهورية الصومال الديمقراطية; Italian: Repubblica Democratica Somala) was a Marxist-Leninist state in Somalia that existed from 1969 to 1991.
Established in October 1969, the Somali Democratic Republic emerged following a coup d'état led by Major General Mohamed Siyaad Barre and the Somali military.[5][6][7][8] The coup took place six days after the assassination of Abdirashid Shermarke, the second President of the Somali Republic.[7] Barre's administration governed Somalia for the next 21 years until the rise of Ethiopian-backed Somali rebel groups, which ultimately led to the government's collapse and the onset of civil war in 1991.[9]
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Abdirashid Shermarke, the 2nd president of Somalia, was assassinated outside the municipal headquarters of Las Anod in Northern Somalia on 15 October 1969. Shermarke had been visiting drought-stricken areas in the northeast when the assassin, Said Yusuf Ismail, shot and killed him.[10]
Henry Kissinger, then United States National Security Advisor, concluded that the assassin acted independently.[11] Sharmarke was elected in 1964 with support from the Soviet Union and other communist states during his campaign.[12]
On 21 October 1969, at 3:00 a.m., General Siyaad, Jama Ali Korshel, Salaad Gabeyre Kediye, Mohamed Ainanshe Guled, and the military overthrew the parliamentary government of the prior Somali republic. In the 1969 Somali coup d'état.[13] One of the primary causes of the coup was widespread corruption, and mishandling of public funds within the Somali government. Consequently, many members of the police and armed forces had become disillusioned with the direction of the country.[14]
The assassin, of former President Abdirashid Shermarke Ismail, was tried, tortured, and executed by the Supreme Revolutionary Council. Notably, Ismail shared the same clan background as President Shermarke.[15]
In 1970, one year after the coup, Siad Barre declared Somalia to be a socialist state and set upon the 'Somalization' of the country, essentially a grand scheme to diminish clan loyalties and create a 'dutiful Somali' country.[16][17]
The Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC), which came to power following President Shermarke's assassination, was led by Lieutenant General Salaad Gabeyre Kediye and Chief of Police Jama Ali Korshel. Kediye held the official title of "Father of the Revolution", and shortly thereafter, Barre became the head of the SRC.[18] The SRC arrested members of the former civilian government, banned political parties, dissolved the National Assembly, and suspended the constitution.[19][4]
The revolutionary army initiated large-scale public works programs in 1972, and successfully implemented an urban and rural literacy campaign, significantly increasing the literacy rate. By 1986 the literacy rate in Somalia was said to be 60% due to the success of this campaign.[20] In addition to a nationalization program for industry and land, the new regime's foreign policy emphasized Somalia's traditional and religious ties with the Arab world, leading to its membership in the Arab League (AL) in 1974.[21] That same year, Barre also served as chairperson of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), the predecessor of the African Union (AU).[22]
In July 1976, Barre's SRC disbanded and established the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP) as a one-party government based on scientific socialism and Islamic principles. The SRSP aimed to reconcile the official state ideology with the official state religion, emphasizing Muslim principles of social progress, equality, and justice. The government argued that these principles formed the core of scientific socialism, along with a focus on self-sufficiency, public participation, popular control, and direct ownership of the means of production. While the SRSP encouraged limited private investment, the administration's overall direction was proclaimed as socialist.[4]
On 13 July 1977, the Ogaden War against Ethiopia erupted when Barre's government aimed to annex the predominantly Somali-inhabited Ogaden region into a Pan-Somali Greater Somalia. This conflict was part of a broader SNA initiative to unify all Somali territories, known as Soomaaliweyn. In the first week of the war, the Somali National Army achieved remarkable victories over Ethiopian forces. Such as the Battle of Jijiga in mid September of 1977[23] surprising many American military observers who maintained a neutral stance. Southern and central Ogaden were quickly captured, and throughout much of the conflict, the Somali Army continued to defeat the Ethiopian Army, advancing as far as Sidamo. By September 1977, Somalia controlled 90% of the Ogaden, capturing strategic cities like Jijiga and exerting heavy pressure on Dire Dawa, thereby threatening the train route from that city to Djibouti.
Following the siege of Harar, a massive and unprecedented Soviet intervention occurred, involving 20,000 Cuban troops and several thousand Soviet advisers supporting Ethiopia's communist Derg regime. On 15 March 1978, a ceasefire was negotiated, bringing an end to the war. This shift in Soviet support prompted the Barre government to seek new allies, eventually turning to the United States, which had been courting Somalia for some time as a counter to Soviet influence. Ultimately, Somalia's initial alliance with the Soviet Union and subsequent partnership with the United States enabled it to build the largest army in Africa.[24]
A new Constitution was ratified on 25 August 1979 through a popular referendum, leading to elections for a People's Assembly. This Constitution established a presidential system, wherein the president served as both the head of state and the head of government. As head of government, the president appointed the members of the Council of Ministers, which he chaired. Initially, the Constitution stipulated that the president would be elected for a six-year renewable term by a two-thirds majority vote of the legislature.[25]
After the failed Ogaden campaign, Barre's administration began arresting government and military officials suspected of involvement in the 1978 coup attempt.[26][27] Most of those believed to have participated in the plot were executed without trial.[28] However, several officials managed to escape abroad and began forming various dissident groups aimed at forcibly removing Barre's regime.[29]
In 1979, a new constitution was introduced, leading to elections for a People's Assembly. Despite this, Barre's Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP) continued to maintain control.[6] In October 1980, the SRSP was disbanded, and the Supreme Revolutionary Council was re-established in its place.[4] By this time, Barre's government had become increasingly unpopular, and many Somalis were disillusioned with life under military dictatorship. The regime weakened further in the 80's as the Cold War drew to a close, diminishing Somalia's strategic importance.
The government's totalitarian grip[30][31] culminated in the Isaaq genocide (1987–1989), which devastated several major cities and targeted members of the Isaaq clan. Civilian death estimates range from 50,000 to 100,000[32][33][34] up to over 200,000.[35] These brutal tactics sparked resistance movements, supported by Ethiopia, that emerged across the country and eventually led to the Somali Civil War. Among these militia groups were the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF), the United Somali Congress (USC), the Somali National Movement (SNM), and the Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM), alongside non-violent political opposition such as the Somali Democratic Movement (SDM), the Somali Democratic Alliance (SDA) and the Somali Manifesto Group (SMG).[citation needed]
On 26 January 1991, Barre was ousted from power, and Somalia subsequently descended into chaos.[citation needed]
The Somali Democratic Republic functioned as a unitary republic under the Marxist-Leninist single-party rule of first the Supreme Revolutionary Council, then the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party.[36] The only serving president, Siad Barre, exercised totalitarian control over the country through a military dictatorship.[37][38][39]
[…] Military Coups of a new type, which introduced revolutionary regimes self-declared Marxist-Leninist. This is the case of Somalia (1969) and Ethiopia (1974), the most emblematic case, but also of four french-speaking countries: Congo-Brazzaville (1968), Daomey/Benin (1972-74), Madagascar (1975) and Alto Volta/Burkina Faso (1983).
[…] Military Coups of a new type, which introduced revolutionary regimes self-declared Marxist-Leninist. This is the case of Somalia (1969) and Ethiopia (1974), the most emblematic case, but also of four french-speaking countries: Congo-Brazzaville (1968), Daomey/Benin (1972-74), Madagascar (1975) and Alto Volta/Burkina Faso (1983).
In January 1991, Siad Barre's totalitarian rule was defeated. But, rather than uniting his enemies, it worsened the crisis.
In October 1969, General Mohamed Siad Barre took over in a military coup. Siad Barre developed a highly centralised, totalitarian state, and tried unsuccessfully to abolish clan behaviour.
In contrast to Angola and Mozambique, where the Marxist component was associated with National Liberation Movements, those in Ethiopia and Somalia, as well as the four Francophone States, had Marxist Military Revolutions/Regimes after more than a decade of independence.
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