Community hub
0 subscribers7 pages, 0 posts
Recent from talks
All channels
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Contribute something
Welcome to the community hub built to collect knowledge and have discussions related to Sone.
Nothing was collected or created yet.
from Wikipedia
The sone (/ˈsoʊn/) is a unit of loudness, the subjective perception of sound pressure. The study of perceived loudness is included in the topic of psychoacoustics and employs methods of psychophysics. Doubling the perceived loudness doubles the sone value. Proposed by Stanley Smith Stevens in 1936, it is not an SI unit.
Definition and conversions
[edit]According to Stevens' definition, a loudness of 1 sone is equivalent to 40 phons (a 1 kHz tone at 40 dB SPL).[1] The phons scale aligns with dB, not with loudness, so the sone and phon scales are not proportional. Rather, the loudness in sones is, at least very nearly, a power law function of the signal intensity, with an exponent of 0.3.[2][3] With this exponent, each 10 phon increase (or 10 dB at 1 kHz) produces almost exactly a doubling of the loudness in sones.[4]
sone 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 phon 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
At frequencies other than 1 kHz, the loudness level in phons is calibrated according to the frequency response of human hearing, via a set of equal-loudness contours, and then the loudness level in phons is mapped to loudness in sones via the same power law.
Loudness N in sones (for LN > 40 phon):[5]
or loudness level LN in phons (for N > 1 sone):
Corrections are needed at lower levels, near the threshold of hearing.
These formulas are for single-frequency sine waves or narrowband signals. For multi-component or broadband signals, a more elaborate loudness model is required, accounting for critical bands.
To be fully precise, a measurement in sones must be specified in terms of the optional suffix G, which means that the loudness value is calculated from frequency groups, and by one of the two suffixes D (for direct field or free field) or R (for room field or diffuse field).
Example values
[edit] |
Description Sound pressure Sound pressure level Loudness pascal dB re 20 μPa sone Threshold of pain ~ 100 ~ 134 ~ 676 Hearing damage during short-term effect ~ 20 ~ 120 ~ 256 Jet, 100 m away 6 ... 200 110 ... 140 128 ... 1024 Jackhammer, 1 m away / nightclub ~ 2 ~ 100 ~ 64 Hearing damage during long-term effect ~ 6×10−1 ~ 90 ~ 32 Major road, 10 m away 2×10−1 ... 6×10−1 80 ... 90 16 ... 32 Passenger car, 10 m away 2×10−2 ... 2×10−1 60 ... 80 4 ... 16 TV set at home level, 1 m away ~ 2×10−2 ~ 60 ~ 4 Normal talking, 1 m away 2×10−3 ... 2×10−2 40 ... 60 1 ... 4 Very calm room 2×10−4 ... 6×10−4 20 ... 30 0.15 ... 0.4 Rustling leaves, calm breathing ~ 6×10−5 ~ 10 ~ 0.02 Auditory threshold at 1 kHz 2×10−5 0 0
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ Stanley Smith Stevens: A scale for the measurement of the psychological magnitude: loudness. See: Psychological Review. 43, Nr. 5, APA Journals, 1936, pp. 405–416
- ^ Brian C. J. Moore (2007). Cochlear hearing loss: physiological, psychological and technical issues (2nd ed.). Wiley-Interscience. pp. 94–95. ISBN 978-0-470-51633-1.
- ^ Irving P. Herman (2007). Physics of The Human Body. Springer. p. 613. ISBN 978-3-540-29603-4.
- ^ Eberhard Hänsler, Gerhard Schmidt (2008). Speech and audio processing in adverse environments. Springer. p. 299. ISBN 978-3-540-70601-4.
- ^ Hugo Fastl and Eberhard Zwicker (2007). Psychoacoustics: facts and models (3rd ed.). Springer. p. 207. ISBN 978-3-540-23159-2.
External links
[edit]from Grokipedia
The sone is a unit of perceived loudness in psychoacoustics, representing the subjective intensity of a sound as experienced by an average human listener.[1] It was first proposed by psychologist Stanley Smith Stevens in 1936 as part of his work on scaling psychological magnitudes, with the scale formalized such that 1 sone corresponds to the loudness of a 1,000 Hz pure tone presented at a sound pressure level (SPL) of 40 decibels (dB) relative to 20 micropascals.[1] Unlike the decibel, which measures objective physical sound pressure on a logarithmic scale, the sone scale is linear with respect to perceived loudness: a sound rated at 2 sones is judged twice as loud as 1 sone, and each doubling of sones typically equates to a 10 dB increase in SPL for tones around 1 kHz.
Stevens developed the sone through direct magnitude estimation experiments, where listeners compared sounds to a reference and assigned numerical values to their perceived loudness, leading to a power-law relationship between stimulus intensity and sensation (Stevens' power law, with an exponent of approximately 0.3 for loudness).[1] By 1955–1957, Stevens refined the scale in collaboration with acoustical engineers, integrating it with equal-loudness contours (now standardized in ISO 226) to handle complex broadband sounds beyond simple tones; this version defined sones more precisely for practical measurement using weighting filters like A-weighting.[2] The unit derives its name from the Latin sonus (sound), emphasizing its focus on auditory perception rather than physics.[3]
In applications, sones are widely used to evaluate and compare noise from appliances, ventilation systems, and environmental sources, as they better predict human annoyance than decibels alone. For instance, a typical quiet conversation registers around 1–2 sones, while a loud exhaust fan might reach 3–5 sones, guiding design standards in building acoustics and product specifications.[4] The scale's integration into international standards, such as ISO 532 for loudness calculation, ensures its role in fields like audio engineering, hearing protection, and urban noise planning, though it assumes a "typical" listener and may vary with individual factors like age or hearing impairment.
Fundamentals
Definition
The sone is a unit used to measure the subjective perception of loudness by humans, quantifying how loud a sound appears to a listener rather than its physical intensity.[5] Unlike the decibel (dB), which measures objective sound pressure level (SPL) on a logarithmic scale, the sone captures the nonlinear, perceptual response of the human auditory system to sound stimuli.[6] This distinction arises because perceived loudness depends on factors such as frequency and individual hearing sensitivity, making the sone a psychophysical measure rather than a purely physical one.[7] By definition, one sone corresponds to the perceived loudness of a pure tone at 1 kHz presented at 40 dB SPL.[8] This reference level corresponds to a moderate loudness sensation reported by average listeners, as established in international standards for auditory perception.[5] The sone scale is linear with respect to perceived loudness, such that a sound rated at 2 sones is judged twice as loud as one at 1 sone, and so on for further doublings. As a non-SI unit derived from psychophysics, the sone originates in the study of sensory perception rather than fundamental physical quantities, and it is not part of the International System of Units.[6] It relates to the phon scale, which measures loudness level on an equal-loudness basis, but focuses specifically on the magnitude of perceived loudness.[5]Historical Development
The sone unit was introduced by psychologist Stanley Smith Stevens in 1936 as part of his pioneering work in power-law psychophysics, which sought to quantify sensory perceptions such as loudness on a scale aligned with human subjective experience.[9] This development emerged from Stevens' broader investigations into how perceived magnitude grows nonlinearly with physical stimulus intensity, establishing the sone as a ratio scale for loudness where numerical values reflect proportional increases in perceived intensity.[10] The foundation of the sone lay in direct loudness scaling experiments, in which listeners rated the perceived loudness of tones relative to a standard reference sound, typically a 1 kHz tone at a moderate intensity. These absolute scaling methods allowed subjects to assign numerical values freely to sounds of varying intensities, revealing a consistent power-law relationship that Stevens formalized into the sone scale. This approach built on earlier psychophysical techniques but emphasized direct magnitude estimation to capture subjective loudness more accurately than prior logarithmic models. By definition, 1 sone corresponds to the loudness of a 1 kHz tone at 40 phons.[9] The sone's evolution drew from preceding research on auditory perception, notably the 1933 equal-loudness contours developed by Harvey Fletcher and Wilden A. Munson, which mapped frequency-dependent sensitivity thresholds but did not quantify overall loudness magnitude. These contours informed Stevens' work by highlighting the ear's nonlinear response across frequencies, yet the sone represented a distinct advance in scaling total perceived loudness. Formalization continued through Stevens' publications in the 1940s, including his 1938 collaboration with Hallowell Davis on auditory physiology, which integrated experimental data into practical loudness models. A key refinement came in Stevens' 1957 analysis, which confirmed the sone scale's exponent of approximately 0.3 for loudness growth as a function of sound intensity, based on aggregated data from multiple laboratories and cross-modality validations. This exponent encapsulated how perceived loudness increases more slowly than physical intensity, solidifying the scale's empirical basis. By the mid-20th century, the sone gained formal adoption in international acoustics standards, with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) incorporating it in ISO/R 131:1959 for subjective noise assessment, enabling consistent evaluation of perceived sound levels in engineering and environmental contexts.Technical Aspects
Relation to Phon Scale
The phon is a unit of loudness level that quantifies the perceived loudness of a sound by equating it to the sound pressure level (SPL) in decibels of a pure 1 kHz tone judged to have the same subjective loudness.[11] This definition allows the phon to account for the human ear's frequency-dependent sensitivity, where sounds at different frequencies require varying SPLs to achieve equivalent perceived loudness.[12] Equal-loudness contours, initially developed as the Fletcher-Munson curves and later standardized in ISO 226:2023, illustrate this frequency dependence by mapping combinations of frequency and SPL that yield the same perceived loudness.[13] These contours reveal that at low SPLs, the ear is less sensitive to low and high frequencies, requiring higher SPLs for those frequencies to match the loudness of mid-range tones; the 2023 revision refines these based on extensive psychoacoustic data from listeners with normal hearing.[14] Unlike the sone, which provides a linear scale approximating the subjective doubling of perceived loudness, the phon follows a logarithmic scale similar to decibels, where a 10-phon increase roughly corresponds to a perceived doubling only above certain thresholds.[12] By convention, a loudness level of 40 phons equates to 1 sone, serving as the anchor point between the two units.[11] While phons effectively incorporate frequency sensitivity through equal-loudness contours, they do not directly model the nonlinear growth of perceived loudness, such as the approximate doubling sensation per 10 dB at moderate levels, necessitating complementary units like the sone for more intuitive assessments of overall loudness perception.[12]Conversion Formulas
The primary conversion formula between sones (S) and phons (P) for pure tones at or above 40 phons is given by where 1 sone corresponds to 40 phons, defined as the perceived loudness of a 1 kHz tone at 40 dB SPL.[15] This equation reflects the empirical observation that perceived loudness doubles for every 10-phon increase above this threshold. The inverse formula, converting sones to phons, is for . The base-2 logarithm arises because the sone scale is constructed such that a doubling of sones corresponds to a 10-phon increase, aligning with the perceptual doubling of loudness.[15] For levels below 40 phons (), the relationship deviates, with an approximation such as used to account for the steeper drop in perceived loudness at low intensities; for precise calculations, consult ISO 532-1:2017 methods.[15][16] This formulation derives from Stevens' power law, which models perceived loudness as , where is sound intensity and the exponent 0.3 indicates that loudness grows as the cube root of intensity. Since phon levels relate logarithmically to intensity via , a 10-phon increase corresponds to a tenfold intensity rise, yielding , or a doubling of sones—thus anchoring the scale at 40 phons for 1 sone. For broadband noise or complex sounds, direct application of the above formulas assumes narrowband tones; instead, equivalent sones are calculated using standardized procedures in ISO 532-1:2017 and ISO 532-2:2017, such as the Zwicker method (ISO 532-1) or Moore-Glasberg method (ISO 532-2), which integrate loudness across critical bands weighted by equal-loudness contours to yield total sones before phon conversion.[16] These formulas assume an average listener based on standardized psychophysical data and do not account for individual variations in hearing sensitivity or age-related thresholds.Practical Applications
In Environmental Acoustics
In environmental acoustics, the sone unit plays a key role in specifying and controlling noise from heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems within buildings. Noise criteria (NC) and room criteria (RC) curves provide a framework for assessing acceptable octave-band sound pressure levels in occupied spaces, with sone ratings applied to quantify the perceived loudness of fan and duct noise to meet these criteria. For instance, in quiet office environments, HVAC fan noise is often around 2 sones to minimize distraction and ensure speech intelligibility, aligning with RC levels around 30 to 35 for such spaces.[17] Key standards guide sone calculations from A-weighted decibel measurements or octave-band data in room and outdoor settings. ANSI/ASA S3.4-2007 (R2020) outlines procedures for computing loudness in sones based on auditory perception models, while ISO 532 specifies methods for deriving sones from complex sound fields, ensuring consistent application in acoustics evaluations.[18] Compared to A-weighted decibels (dB(A)), sones offer superior prediction of subjective disturbance, especially for low-frequency components prevalent in ventilation noise, due to their basis in human loudness perception across the frequency spectrum. This makes sones particularly valuable for regulating HVAC rumble in sensitive environments, where dB(A) may underestimate annoyance from bass-heavy sounds. Sones are primarily suited for steady sounds and normal hearing; for impulsive or tonal noises, other metrics may apply per ISO 532.In Audio and Product Design
In audio engineering, the sone unit facilitates loudness normalization by quantifying perceived volume, enabling engineers to adjust audio signals for consistent subjective loudness across broadcasts and recordings. For instance, standards like EBU R128 target -23 LUFS for integrated loudness, which aligns with psychoacoustic principles underlying sone to ensure uniform perceived intensity without abrupt volume shifts.[19] This approach integrates sone-like perceptual metrics to balance audio output, particularly in multi-channel environments where frequency-dependent hearing sensitivity affects overall loudness.[20] Product designers specify sone ratings for appliances to optimize user comfort by minimizing perceived noise during operation. Bathroom exhaust fans and range hoods, for example, are often rated between 1 and 3 sones for quiet performance, where 1 sone approximates the hum of a refrigerator, allowing effective ventilation without intrusive sound.[21] Similarly, models below 2 sones provide near-silent functionality in residential settings. Psychoacoustic modeling software employs the sone scale to simulate and equalize perceived loudness across frequencies, promoting balanced listening in audio systems. Tools from organizations like the Audio Engineering Society (AES) and measurement suites such as HEAD Acoustics calculate sone-based loudness to predict human auditory response, aiding in the design of headphones and speakers that maintain tonal equilibrium.[8] This modeling helps developers, including those working with Dolby technologies, refine equalization curves so that low and high frequencies contribute proportionally to overall sone levels, enhancing immersion without spectral imbalances.[22] Compared to decibels (dB), which measure physical sound pressure logarithmically, sones offer a linear scale for perceived loudness, allowing designers to double subjective volume by increasing sones by a factor of two—equivalent to a 10 dB rise—without excessive amplification that could distort signals or harm hearing.[23] This perceptual linearity simplifies achieving "twice as loud" effects in product audio profiles, often referencing phon equivalents in specifications for precise calibration.[8]Illustrative Examples
Common Sound Levels
The sone scale provides a practical measure of perceived loudness for various everyday sounds, with values derived from standardized psychoacoustic calculations that account for human auditory sensitivity. These estimates are approximate and represent typical levels for broadband or tonal noises as perceived by average adults with normal hearing.[11] In quiet environments, a silent room typically registers around 0.1–0.5 sones, comparable to the subtle background hum in a very still space, while a soft whisper at close range is rated at about 0.5 sones.[24] Conversational levels fall in the 2–4 sone range for normal speech, with an office background noise often around 2 sones, allowing comfortable dialogue without strain.[25] Noisier scenarios escalate quickly: a vacuum cleaner commonly produces 10–20 sones, making it distinctly intrusive during use, and a rock concert can exceed 100 sones, overwhelming the listener with intense auditory pressure.[24] For reference, a 1 kHz tone at 50 dB SPL equates to approximately 2 sones, doubling to about 4 sones at 60 dB SPL, illustrating the nonlinear doubling of perceived loudness every 10 phons above the 1 sone baseline.[11] These values vary slightly based on individual hearing sensitivity, sound spectrum, and measurement conditions, but they stem from established methods like ISO 532 for consistent perceptual scaling.| Sound Scenario | Approximate Sone Level |
|---|---|
| Silent room | 0.1–0.5 |
| Whisper | ~0.5 |
| Normal speech | 2–4 |
| Office background | ~2 |
| Vacuum cleaner | 10–20 |
| Rock concert | 100+ |
| 1 kHz tone at 50 dB SPL | ~2 |
| 1 kHz tone at 60 dB SPL | ~4 |
Comparative Perceptions
The relationship between physical sound pressure level (SPL) and perceived loudness, as measured in sones, is nonlinear and depends on the phon level, which approximates the SPL of a 1 kHz tone at equal perceived loudness. A 10 dB increase in SPL roughly corresponds to a tenfold increase in acoustic intensity, but the perceptual effect varies: above 40 phons, such an increase approximately doubles the loudness in sones, reflecting the standard scaling where each 10-phon increment doubles perceived loudness for mid-frequencies.[26][12] Below 40 phons, near the threshold of hearing, the same 10 dB rise results in a smaller perceptual change, adding only about 2 sones or less due to the compressed growth of loudness at low intensities, where perceived doubling requires less than 10 dB.[26] This discrepancy highlights how sones prioritize subjective experience over objective intensity, making low-level sounds seem disproportionately quieter than their physical measures imply. Frequency content further modulates this perception, as equal-loudness contours reveal that human sensitivity peaks around 2-5 kHz and declines at extremes. Low-frequency rumbles, such as those from traffic, often yield higher sone ratings relative to their A-weighted decibel (dB(A)) levels because A-weighting attenuates frequencies below 500 Hz, underestimating the perceived loudness contributed by bass components; in contrast, sone calculations incorporate these contours more comprehensively, capturing a greater subjective impact for such spectra at equivalent dB(A) readings.[27][28] For instance, a broadband low-frequency noise at 50 dB(A) may register 1.5-2 times the sones of a mid-frequency noise at the same level, emphasizing how contour weighting elevates the perceptual weight of infrasonic elements beyond simple SPL comparisons.[27] Individual variability introduces additional layers to sone-based comparisons, as age-related changes alter equal-loudness contours and thus the mapping from SPL to perceived sones. Older adults typically exhibit elevated thresholds and shallower loudness growth functions, perceiving the same SPL as fewer sones than younger listeners due to reduced cochlear sensitivity and neural adaptation; for example, a 60 dB SPL tone might equate to 3 sones for those over 60 but 4-5 sones for adults under 40. Children, conversely, often display heightened sensitivity in mid-frequencies but immature processing of low-frequency components, leading to higher sone estimates for the same SPL in speech-like sounds compared to adults. Cultural listening habits, such as prolonged exposure to high-volume environments in certain urban settings, can further shift subjective ratings, with acclimated individuals assigning lower relative sones to familiar noises despite identical SPLs.[30] Across sensory contexts, sone levels illustrate perceptual equivalences that diverge from SPL alone; a typical conversation, rated at around 4 sones, matches the subjective loudness of a 1 kHz tone at 60 dB SPL but exceeds that of a 50 dB tone at lower frequencies like 100 Hz, which falls to about 1-2 sones due to contour shifts. At the same 60 dB SPL, however, conversation often feels louder than pink noise, as speech concentrates energy in the 1-4 kHz range of peak sensitivity, exciting more auditory critical bands and yielding 20-30% higher sone values than the more evenly distributed pink noise spectrum.[23][31] Despite these insights, sone metrics have inherent limitations in capturing full perceptual nuance, particularly failing to account for sharpness (high-frequency emphasis) or tonal annoyance, which can amplify subjective disturbance beyond loudness alone. These aspects are addressed through supplementary corrections, such as the 3-6 dB tonality penalties in standards like ISO 1996-2, added to overall levels when prominent tones are detected to better predict irritation from sources like machinery hums.[32] Such adjustments ensure that sone-based comparisons focus on core loudness while acknowledging the need for composite metrics in complex auditory scenes.References
- https://www.[researchgate](/page/ResearchGate).net/publication/334148209_Loudness_estimation_of_sounds_perceived_by_older_adults_based_on_their_equal-loudness-level_characteristics