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In Trinidad and Tobago, and other parts of the Caribbean, the term tassa refers to a drumming ensemble drawn from an amalgamation of various North Indian folk drumming traditions, most importantly dhol-tasha, a style that remains popular today in many parts of India and Pakistan.[1] Beginning in the 1830s and lasting until 1918, dhol-tasha was taken around the world by Indian workers, mostly from present-day Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, enmeshed in a global scheme of indentured labor in British, French, and Dutch territories.[2]

History

[edit]

Tassa is a drum ensemble with ancient Persian origins, also known as Taash or Taasha drums. These drums disseminated to the Indian subcontinent with the Mughal migration, and from India spread worldwide with the Indian diaspora. The tassa drum proper is a conical or bowl-shaped nagaara- (aka nagada or nagaada) type drum which is played with a heavy bass drum called dhol, or simply "bass", and brass cymbals or metal shakers called jhaanj or jhaal (Hindi/Sanskrit). Tassa-dhol ensembles of three to five players are especially common in street processions, whether associated with Indian weddings, political rallies, Hindu festivals, or Muslim festivals, especially Muharram (known as "Hosay" in Jamaica and Trinidad, a colloquialization of Hussain). In Maharashtra, ensembles of several dozen drummers compete in festivities honoring the deity Ganesh. Drummers in these ensembles are often amateurs, or specialists in other drum traditions. Brought by indentured workers to the Caribbean, Fiji, Mauritius, and Africa in the 19th century, tassa ensembles have flourished with great dynamism in Trinidad and Tobago, where they were used in the Hindu Phagwah, Muslim Hosay festival, and also in Florida, the New York metropolitan area, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Texas, the Greater Toronto Area, California, Australia, New Zealand, and various other places where Indo-Caribbean and Indo-Fijian diasporic communities are found.

Instrument construction

[edit]

Traditionally, the tassa is made by tightly covering a clay shell with goat skin, using an intricate, archaic process. The hides of monkey, deer, and horse are periodically used. When ready to play, the goat skin is heated by aid of a fire to tighten the head, making the pitch higher. This process is called "standing it up". In this way, the pitch can stay high for 20–30 minutes, until the heat dissipates from both the skin and the inside of the drum. Contemporary tassa drums are made by cutting an empty coolant tank or buoy in half and attaching a synthetic drum skin to the top of it with nuts and bolts, welding it shut. Synthetic drums do last longer and do not have to be adjusted as frequently. Although synthetic drums last longer, they deviate from the long-standing tradition of clay and goatskin and, according to some connoisseurs and aficionados, do not sound as well due to its limited range of pitch and cold, metallic, twangy tones.

Bass drums are usually constructed from a single piece of tree trunk, usually mango or cedar, which is hollowed out by either lathe or hand. Older, larger drums were made of the dense but light weight cottonwood tree which is rarely found today. Some bass drum shells are made of maple ply-wood, others have a barrel stave construction. The drum shell is covered on both sides by goat skins which are pulled tightly with rope. Different amounts of "massala", a proprietary thick, sticky, tar-like concoction, is placed in the insides of the skin to create a lower frequency resonation on the "bass" side hit with a stick, and a higher frequency resonation on the more "treble" side hit with the hand. The deep, booming sounds of bass drums can be heard from long distances. The flair and machismo of a tassa group usually falls to the bass player, the playing style of which can range from stationary and reserved to flamboyant, aggressive and punishing, the latter of which has been termed "break away". When two or more groups compete, it is often the loudest bass drum(s) which can lead to victory.

Repertoire and performance

[edit]

The typical tassa group is as follows: the lead tassa player is called the "cutter" or "cut-man". The cutter plays the main, pulsating rhythm, or taal, or hand. The second tassa player is known as the "fulley" or "fuller", as their role is to make the rhythm or "taal" sound more full. The fulley plays a steady rhythm usually a simplified version of the main hand but in same metre and mode. The bass drummer adds power and depth to the taal with a constant, ground-shaking beat. The jhaanj man or brass man (sometimes played by a woman) plays the cymbals which enrich the overall sound of the ensemble with piercing or smooth metallic brass sounds creating by vibrating one cymbal against the other.

The rhythms (hands, taal) are quite complex and each have many variations, including variations between the North of Trinidad and the South of Trinidad. Some basic hands are tikora, wedding tikora, bete drum, wedding hand, nagaara, chutney, dingolay, soca, and chaubola. "Classical" hands include kalinda, khemta, bhajan, thumri, and daadra. Hosay (Muharram) festival rhythms include saada mahaatam, chalta mahaatam, teen choppa, dead hand, and nabi sarwar/sarbat.

The tassa drums are played with sticks made from wild cane (called chob, Hindi for cane sticks) or fiberglass. The sticks can either have very tightly wound masking tape at the top or the sap from a balata tree wound into a ball can form the head of a stick. When played, these pliant sticks are struck on the head of the drum and accomplish a unique sound because the flexibility of the stick is responsible for the roll rather than the regressive bouncing action of the head of the stick.

References

[edit]
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Tassa

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from Grokipedia
Tassa is a vibrant percussion ensemble tradition in , derived from North Indian dhol-tasha drumming styles and introduced by Indian indentured laborers arriving between 1845 and 1917. The ensemble typically consists of one or two bowl-shaped tassa drums (lead and supporting roles), a large double-headed bass , and jhal hand cymbals, played with sticks and hands to produce rhythmic patterns known as "hands" that blend Indian folk motifs with innovations. These performances are characterized by high-energy, improvisational beats that have evolved over time, incorporating modern materials like synthetic drumheads and freon tank shells for durability. Rooted in the cultural practices of Bhojpuri-speaking migrants from regions like and , tassa drumming initially accompanied () processions commemorating the martyrdom of , adapting Hindu and Muslim rituals in the . By the late , it expanded to Hindu s, Divali celebrations, funerals, and national events, symbolizing Indo- identity and resilience amid colonial and post-colonial influences. Professionalization surged in the , with the first formal competition held in , leading to over 100 active tassa bands as of the early 2020s and competitions like the National Tassa Championship. Notable innovations include the dantal, a metal struck with a U-shaped beater, often claimed as a Trinidadian invention akin to the in cultural significance. Tassa's rhythmic complexity, drawing from sources like chaubola wedding beats and calypso-infused styles, underscores its role as a bridge between ancestral heritage and contemporary expression.

Origins and History

Indian Roots

The origins of tassa drumming trace back to North Indian folk traditions, particularly the -tasha , which features the double-headed barrel drum and the high-pitched tasha kettledrum. This emerged prominently in regions such as , , and , where it became a staple of communal music-making among diverse communities. By the early 19th century, -tasha performances were well-established in urban centers like in , serving as a dynamic form of rhythmic expression that blended percussive techniques with cultural rituals. Historically, the tasha drum is believed to have roots in Mughal-era military and ceremonial music, possibly deriving from the term "tāsat" meaning "bowl," and spreading across the through Mughal migrations and influences. During this period, from the 16th to 19th centuries, tasha drums were used in processional and battle contexts, evolving from martial signaling tools into integral elements of folk practices by the colonial . This transition reflected broader cultural integrations, as the ensemble was adopted by Shi’a Muslims for religious observances and later by Sunni Muslims and for secular and festive events, fostering a shared rhythmic vocabulary across social divides. Central to the dhol-tasha tradition are key rhythmic patterns such as (an 8-beat cycle) and (a 6-beat cycle), which provide the foundational beats for ensemble coordination and improvisation. These taals, common in North Indian classical and , allow drummers to layer complex bols (syllabic strokes) on the dhol's bass and treble sides while the tasha delivers sharp, accented responses, creating polyrhythmic textures that energize group performances. Such patterns emphasize cyclic repetition and subtle variations, enabling seamless transitions between solo flourishes and collective grooves. In pre-colonial and , dhol-tasha ensembles played a vital role in festivals and social ceremonies, including processions in —where they accompanied lamentations with somber, dirge-like rhythms—and Hindu weddings across and , infusing (groom's procession) celebrations with upbeat, invigorating beats. These performances not only marked life-cycle events but also reinforced community bonds through participatory drumming, often involving amateur and professional players alike. While Navratri festivals in some North Indian contexts incorporated similar percussive elements for devotional dances, the ensemble's primary associations remained with festivities and religious parades, setting the stage for its later transplantation to the via indentured laborers in the .

Arrival and Development in Trinidad and Tobago

Tassa drumming arrived in Trinidad and Tobago through Indian indentured laborers who began migrating to the island in 1845 aboard ships like the Fatel Razack, primarily from the northern Indian regions of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. These workers, predominantly Bhojpuri speakers from rural areas of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, part of a larger British colonial system that transported over 140,000 Indians to Trinidad between 1845 and 1917, carried the dhol (a double-headed bass drum) and tasha (small kettledrums) as integral elements of their cultural and religious practices, adapting them for communal gatherings and rituals. Under British colonial rule, tassa drumming encountered significant suppression during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, most notably during the 1884 Muharram Massacre in San Fernando, where colonial forces opened fire on a procession featuring tassa ensembles, killing at least 16 participants and injuring dozens more in an effort to curb perceived unrest among indentured communities. This event exemplified broader colonial restrictions on Indian cultural expressions, including bans on drumming and processions, which forced tassa into more private, subdued performances. Following Trinidad and Tobago's independence in 1962, tassa experienced a notable resurgence, buoyed by growing Indo-Caribbean assertions of and national integration. Key milestones in tassa's development include its integration into processions by the 1920s, where it became a central rhythmic despite ongoing colonial oversight, evolving from informal estate-based playing to more organized displays. By the , tassa groups began to formalize as structured ensembles, often tied to Hindu temples and community organizations, marking a shift toward and competitive . This period laid the groundwork for tassa's expansion beyond religious contexts into broader social events. The tradition's evolution in was profoundly shaped by , as Indian drumming elements blended with African-derived rhythms—such as those from calypso and —and local Trinidadian influences, fostering a distinctive Indo-Caribbean sound that symbolized hybrid cultural resilience. This synthesis, evident in adapted beats and ensemble dynamics, distinguished Trinidadian tassa from its North Indian forebears while reinforcing a unique ethnic identity within the multicultural nation.

Instruments and Construction

Drum Types in the Ensemble

The tassa ensemble typically features four main instruments: the cutter, foulé, (also known as ), and jhal cymbals. The cutter serves as the lead tassa drum, a small, high-pitched instrument that directs the ensemble through improvisational patterns and rhythmic calls. Measuring approximately 10-13 inches in diameter, it produces sharp, piercing tones essential for leading the group's dynamics. The foulé, the accompanying tassa, is slightly larger at 14-16 inches in diameter and provides a fuller, mid-range sound to support the cutter's melodies with steady ostinatos. Both the cutter and foulé are single-headed, bowl-shaped membranophones traditionally slung from the and played with sticks. Their heads, historically goatskin tuned by heating over fire to achieve a tight, resonant pitch lasting 20-30 minutes, have shifted in modern practice to synthetic materials affixed via nut-and-bolt tension rods for more stable tuning. This evolution from early clay shells in the to lightweight metal bodies (often repurposed tanks) by the reflects adaptations for durability and competition demands in . The , or , anchors the ensemble with deep, foundational rhythms, functioning as a double-headed cylindrical drum carved from solid wood like or cedar. It features two heads of varying tension—one lower-pitched side struck with a stick for booming bass tones and a higher-pitched side played by hand—tuned using lacing and a masala paste application to adjust frequencies. Historically stave-constructed like rum barrels, contemporary versions favor solid logs or experimental materials such as or for enhanced projection. Complementing the drums, the jhal consists of brass hand cymbals that add metallic accents and maintain time-keeping within the ensemble. Evolving from larger, thinner pairs up to 12 inches in the mid-20th century to smaller, thicker 6-inch models by the 1980s, they produce cleaner, higher-pitched crashes to punctuate rhythms. The jhal's role emphasizes rhythmic texture without requiring tuning. An additional instrument sometimes incorporated is the dhantal, a steel triangle struck with a U-shaped metal beater, providing a sharp, rhythmic accent. Invented in , it highlights local innovation in Indo-Caribbean percussion.

Materials and Building Techniques

Traditional tassa drums in were initially constructed using clay pots for the shell, sourced from local red clay that was shaped and fired to create a resonant bowl-shaped body. The drumheads consisted of goatskin, selected for its durability and tonal qualities, with the hair removed through shaving and cleaning processes. These skins were secured over the open end of the clay shell using rawhide strips or rope lacing, often threaded through holes punched around the perimeter of the skin. Iron hoops or metal rings were sometimes employed to apply tension and maintain the skin's tautness, particularly in early designs influenced by North Indian tasha traditions. The construction process for traditional clay tassa drums involved several steps: first, the clay was molded into the desired shape using pottery tools and then baked to harden the shell; next, the goatskin was measured, cut to fit, and soaked in for at least an hour to make it pliable; it was then stretched over the shell and laced tightly with or rawhide, a process that could take about an hour per drum. Tools such as chisels were used for refining the shell edges, while nails or pegs occasionally assisted in securing the lacing. To achieve the desired pitch, a glutinous mixture known as dholki masala—composed of , , and other ingredients—was applied in a circular layer to the center of the drumhead after drying, altering its vibration and tone. During , the goatskin head required periodic heating over a every 20 minutes to raise and stabilize the pitch in humid conditions. For the bass drum in the tassa ensemble, traditional bodies were carved from solid logs of or cedar wood, providing a deeper resonance compared to the smaller tassa shells. These wooden shells were hollowed out using chisels and similar carving tools, with goatskin heads laced and tuned using masala paste in a manner akin to the smaller drums. Modern adaptations, emerging in the mid-20th century, shifted toward more durable materials to withstand Trinidad's and frequent use. By the , steel oil barrels or pressurized tanks were repurposed by cutting them in half to form the shell, offering greater resistance to cracking than clay. Synthetic drumheads replaced goatskin for enhanced longevity and weather resistance, attached via a nut-and-bolt tension system that allows precise adjustments without heating. The construction process for these contemporary drums includes cutting the tank with appropriate tools, or affixing metal brackets around the rim, and securing the head with screws or bolts, which are tightened using tuning mallets to fine-tune the pitch. Experimental variations have incorporated wood or halved plastic fishing buoys, laced with nylon rope for tension. Regional variations highlight the evolution from Indian origins, where tasha drums featured shallow clay or metal shells with animal skins tuned by heating, to Trinidadian practices that favor deeper clay pots or metal tanks for louder projection in settings. In Trinidad, the incorporation of industrial materials like oil since the mid-20th century reflects local resourcefulness, diverging from the more pottery-centric Indian methods while retaining core elements like masala tuning for bass drums.

Performance Practices

Ensemble Structure and Roles

A typical tassa ensemble consists of 4 players, forming a compact percussion group that emphasizes rhythmic interplay during performances. The core structure includes one cutter on the lead tassa drum, who directs the music through improvised yet standardized rhythmic calls known as taals; one foulé player on a supporting tassa drum, who provides steady ostinato patterns to underpin the ensemble's groove; and one dhol player delivering the foundational bass lines. An optional cymbal player, using jhal or brass hand cymbals, adds metallic accents to reinforce the overall rhythm, particularly in larger groups or processional settings. Within the , a clear exists, with the cutter serving as the lead or "cutter master" who cues transitions and maintains cohesion, a role typically held by an elder or highly experienced musician due to the demands of and group direction. This leadership fosters a dynamic where the cutter's calls prompt responses from the foulé and bass players, creating a call-and-response framework that drives the performance forward. Rehearsals occur in dedicated tassa yards— spaces affiliated with local associations—where groups hone and refine these interactive elements through repetitive practice of ensemble parts. Historically, tassa ensembles have been male-dominated, reflecting cultural norms in Indo-Trinidadian communities where drumming was viewed as a physically demanding and traditionally masculine pursuit. However, female participation has grown significantly since the early 2000s, with women now playing all instruments, including lead roles, and all-female groups like the NGC Sweet Tassa emerging as award-winning ensembles that challenge gender barriers.

Rhythms and Repertoire

The rhythms of tassa drumming are organized into distinct patterns known as "hands," which form the core of its musical repertoire. These hands draw from North Indian folk drumming traditions but have been adapted with Caribbean syncopation, creating a unique Indo-Trinidadian style that emphasizes interlocking ostinatos and dynamic energy. Key examples include the syncopated 6/8 beat of the jhumka, which provides a lilting, dance-like foundation; the fast 4/4 march of the cutchi, evoking processional vigor; and the slow, swinging tempo of the coolie dance, suited for more contemplative or ceremonial movements. Tassa repertoire typically structures each piece as a progressive build-up, starting with a slow introductory section called naghma that establishes the basic (rhythmic cycle), then escalating to high-energy climaxes known as jharna through accelerating tempos and intensified layering. These pieces generally last 10-15 minutes, allowing for seamless transitions between hands while maintaining a continuous flow. The ensemble's composite supports this arc, with the anchoring steady pulses and the jhal providing metallic accents that heighten the climactic release. Improvisation plays a central role, particularly through the cutter drummer, who leads the group with spontaneous solos that respond to audience reactions or interplay with other players, injecting virtuosic fills and variations into the established hands. These improvisations often feature rapid rolls and "shots" on the tassa drum, enhancing the music's responsiveness and excitement. The rhythmic foundation reflects influences from Indian taals, such as kaharva and adaptations of teen taal, blended with local syncopated elements to suit Trinidadian performance contexts. These are notated and transmitted orally using simple bol systems—syllabic mnemonics like "dha tin tin ta"—which guide the mnemonic learning of patterns across the ensemble.

Cultural and Social Role

Use in Festivals and Rituals

Tassa drumming plays a central role in Trinidadian festivals and rituals, particularly within Indo-Caribbean communities, where it serves as an auditory emblem of cultural continuity from Indian indentured laborers who arrived in the . In processions, commemorating the Islamic month of since the mid-19th century (first noted in 1847), tassa ensembles accompany the parading of tadjahs—ornate, tomb-like structures symbolizing Hussein's martyrdom—through streets in areas like St. James and Cedros. These performances, often involving large groups of up to 50 drummers, evoke the solemnity of communal mourning with rhythmic patterns that mimic the sounds of battle and procession marches, reinforcing themes of sacrifice and resilience drawn from Shiite traditions adapted in the Trinidadian context. Beyond , tassa is integral to Hindu celebrations such as weddings and , where it shifts to expressions of joy and communal festivity. During multi-day Hindu wedding rituals, tassa groups herald the groom's arrival and punctuate key ceremonies like the procession, using upbeat rhythms to symbolize prosperity and familial bonds rooted in Indian heritage. In observances, marked by lights and deyas, tassa drumming energizes street processions and community gatherings, blending festive exuberance with invocations of and victory over darkness, as seen in annual events in and surrounding neighborhoods. These uses highlight tassa's versatility in channeling both grief and celebration, with beats that narrate stories of heritage and unity. Tassa's ritual prominence extends to organized competitions, which have formalized its practice since the 1980s through events like those sponsored by the Tassa Association of Trinidad and Tobago. Annual competitions, such as the National Tassa Competition, evaluate ensembles on technical skill, rhythmic creativity, and ensemble cohesion, often drawing youth participants from Indo-Trinidadian areas like Chaguanas and Aranguez. These gatherings not only preserve tradition but also foster social cohesion, as tassa groups—typically youth-led—strengthen neighborhood ties and transmit cultural knowledge across generations in Indo-Caribbean communities.

Evolution and Contemporary Influence

Following the 1970s, tassa drumming in underwent significant transformations, incorporating elements of local genres such as calypso and soca, particularly in performances. This fusion began gaining prominence in the 1980s and accelerated through the 1990s, with tassa ensembles adopting rhythmic patterns from chutney-soca and calypso "hands" to create hybrid styles that blended Indo-Trinidadian traditions with Afro-Creole influences. For instance, the Malick Tassa Drummers collaborated with the Trinidad All Stars Steel Orchestra in 1987 for a performance of the calypso " Tabanca," marking an early example of such integration. These developments allowed tassa to expand beyond traditional contexts, appealing to broader audiences during national events like , where amplified sound systems became common to project the ensemble's intricate beats over large crowds. The global spread of tassa accelerated in the through migration, leading to established ensembles in urban diaspora communities. In New York, groups like the San Juan Youngstars and Country Boys formed during this period, adapting tassa rhythms to multicultural settings while maintaining core Indo-Caribbean elements for events such as weddings and cultural festivals. Similar expansions occurred in , where bands like Toronto's Finest Tassa Drummers emerged with over two decades of experience by the , performing at carnivals and community gatherings. In , tassa influenced diasporic celebrations, though specific groups are less documented, reflecting the tradition's integration into broader Indo-Caribbean music scenes abroad. These adaptations often involved scaling ensembles for urban venues and incorporating local influences to sustain the art form. Amid challenges from the dominance of Western and Afro-Creole music forms, preservation efforts intensified in the early , including the formation of the Tassa Association of Trinidad and Tobago in the early to organize national competitions and promote the tradition. The association's first National Tassa Competition in 2001 established rules for standardized performances, fostering professionalism and attracting youth participation through workshops and youth-focused bands. In response to the 2024 designation of the as the national instrument, the Tassa Association advocated for tassa's recognition as more indigenous to . These initiatives counter marginalization by emphasizing tassa's role in Indo-Caribbean identity and providing alternatives to mainstream genres. Community classes at sites like Shiva Mandir and the rise of all-female groups, such as the T&T Sweet Tassa All-Girls Band, further support teaching younger generations. Notable figures have driven these evolutions, including fifth-generation drummer Lenny Kumar, who founded the NGC Trinidad & Tobago Sweet Tassa in the 2000s and received the Hummingbird Gold Medal in 2022 for over 50 years of innovation in drum-making and performance. Kumar's work includes blending tassa with contemporary elements, as seen in his group's fusion performances that incorporate modern flair while preserving traditional rhythms. Modern bands continue this trend, with ensembles like TriStar Tassa Group merging tassa beats with vocals and other hybrid styles, extending the tradition's influence into urban and global contexts.

References

  1. https://ojs.tnkul.pl/index.php/rh/article/download/17300/16741/
  2. https://cicr.blogs.sas.ac.uk/2018/01/22/tassa-drumming-as-an-icon-of-indianness-in-trinidad-and-tobago/
  3. https://chitra.clas.ufl.edu/lenny-kumar-and-tassa-drummers/
  4. https://classicalindianmusictt.wordpress.com/the-instruments/percussion/
  5. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/366669244_FROM_DHOL-TASHA_TO_TASSA_TRADITION_AND_TRANSFORMATION_IN_INDIAN_TRINIDADIAN_TASSA_DRUMMING
  6. https://doi.org/10.18290/rh227012.8
  7. https://www.taalgyan.com/taals/keherwa/
  8. https://www.academia.edu/35771578/From_Indian_to_Indo_Creole_Tassa_Drumming_Creolization_and_Indo_Caribbean_Nationalism_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago
  9. https://ojs.tnkul.pl/index.php/rh/article/download/17300/16741
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  12. https://academic.oup.com/illinois-scholarship-online/book/13759
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  14. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/359552775_When_the_Music_Soundin_%27Sweet%27_Musical_Instrument_Construction_Performance_Practice_and_the_Changing_Aesthetics_of_Indian_Trinidadian_Tassa_Drumming
  15. https://trinidadianpercussion.wordpress.com/tassa/
  16. http://www.sweettassa.com/whats-tassa.html
  17. https://pan-mag.com/first-all-female-tassa-group-wins-awards-at-world-championships-of-performing-arts/
  18. https://ngc.co.tt/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/Tassa.pdf
  19. https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1023&context=jj_pubs
  20. https://www.academia.edu/93931570/FROM_DHOL_TASHA_TO_TASSA_TRADITION_AND_TRANSFORMATION_IN_INDIAN_TRINIDADIAN_TASSA_DRUMMING
  21. https://www.caribbean-beat.com/issue-118/drums-night-hosay-trinidad
  22. https://newlinesmag.com/essays/how-the-cultures-of-trinidad-transformed-an-islamic-festival/
  23. https://trinidadexpress.com/features/local/tassa-time/article_e7090160-9653-11ef-815d-8bb0f48c96dc.html
  24. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330457855_Music_competitions_public_pedagogy_and_decolonisation_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago
  25. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254698714_With_a_Tassa_Blending_Calypso_and_Cultural_Identity_in_Indo-Caribbean_Fiction
  26. https://academic.oup.com/book/38716/chapter/336891328
  27. https://www.facebook.com/torontosfinesttassadrummers/
  28. https://pannotation.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/930af906-775c-428f-9588-95df1f1ade81.pdf
  29. https://www.guardian.co.tt/news/association-tassa-more-local-than-steelpan-6.2.2088087.a7e89adf3a
  30. https://trinidadexpress.com/features/tassa-trailblazer-lennita-kumar-mathura/article_0d5d810f-ffc5-481c-b455-996fcb4df47a.html
  31. https://pas.org/publication-articles/ngc-trinidad-tobago-sweet-tassa-international/
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