Hubbry Logo
Three ChristsThree ChristsMain
Open search
Three Christs
Community hub
Three Christs
logo
7 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Three Christs
Three Christs
Three Christs
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Three Christs
Theatrical release poster
Directed byJon Avnet
Screenplay by
Based onThe Three Christs of Ypsilanti
by Milton Rokeach
Produced byDaniel Levin
Molly Hassell
Jon Avnet
Aaron Stern[1]
Starring
CinematographyDenis Lenoir
Edited byPatrick J. Don Vito
Music byJeff Russo
Production
companies
  • Brooklyn Films
  • Highland Film Group
  • Narrative Capital
Distributed byIFC Films
Release dates
  • September 12, 2017 (2017-09-12) (TIFF)
  • January 10, 2020 (2020-01-10) (United States)
Running time
109 minutes[2][3][4][5]
CountryUnited States
LanguageEnglish
Box office$37,788[3][2]

Three Christs, also known as State of Mind,[6] is a 2017 American drama film directed, co-produced, and co-written by Jon Avnet and based on Milton Rokeach's nonfiction book The Three Christs of Ypsilanti. It screened in the Gala Presentations section at the 2017 Toronto International Film Festival.[7][8][9] The film is also known as: Three Christs of Ypsilanti, The Three Christs of Ypsilanti, Three Christs of Santa Monica, and The Three Christs of Santa Monica.[5]

Plot

[edit]

Dr. Alan Stone, a progressive and idealistic psychologist, dropped out of New York University in 1954 to work directly with patients at the Ypsilanti State Mental Asylum. Stone, whose focus is on schizophrenic patients, is widely considered a critic of the system. In the 1950s, people with mental illnesses were mostly only kept in institutions and sedated when needed. Treatments with insulin shock therapy and the use of electric shocks were common, while talk therapy was only a marginal phenomenon.

In Ypsilanti, Stone meets two patients who both believe they are Jesus Christ: the short intellectual Joseph Cassell and the gruff Clyde Benson. Out of this coincidence, the psychologist develops a format of group talk therapy. He has another patient transferred to Ypsilanti who also believes he is Christ, Leon Gabor, and brings the three men together to study their behavior. He finds out that the problems of the three are completely different. Gabor suffered all his life from his deeply religious mother, and he was also traumatized by multiple rapes by a man he had been exposed to as a soldier. Benson could not cope with the death of his beloved wife from an abortion. Cassell is prone to outbursts of anger. Once admitted to the institution, he was repeatedly sedated with electric shocks, which he subsequently developed a great fear of because he feared for his sanity. Contrary to the skepticism of many colleagues, including the head of the institution, Dr. Orbus, Stone takes a different course and, for example, completely dispenses with physical punishment. In fact, he manages to get through to the patients by talking to them and writing them letters.

When he makes the cover of a professional journal with his new approach, it arouses the envy of Dr. Orbus, who wants a share of the fame and henceforth urges to be involved in the treatment. Since Stone reacts reservedly to Orbus's obvious craving for prestige, the latter finally bypasses the colleague and lets Cassell be taken alone to his office for an interview. It is revealed that Stone wrote the letters to Cassell on Orbus' behalf since the head of the asylum originally declined the task. Cassell feels betrayed by Stone and stalled by Orbus. Despite good behavior, he sees his hopes of leaving the clinic dwindling. Out of anger at this realization, he becomes abusive again, which is why Orbus orders renewed electric shocks for him. Stone rushes over and tries to stop it, but is ultimately unable to prevent the shocks. In a skirmish with another doctor, he injures him and himself. Orbus then has him expelled from the institution.

Orbus takes over his patients. Cassell, however, who noticed that Stone wanted to save him and also that he then disappeared, no longer trusts Orbus. He sees himself in his power and believes in another long suffering. Finally, during a conversation in the chapel's bell tower with Orbus, he jumps out of the window and dies.

In the later hearing, Stone accuses Orbus of making negligent decisions. He also deciphers Cassell's last words, according to which Cassell not only committed suicide to be free but above all gave his life to justify the sins of Orbus as Jesus did the sins of mankind. The hearing ends with Stone being fired. However, he is granted permission and funds to continue his study (including the two remaining patients) in New York. Orbus, on the other hand, remains formally in his post, but without decision-making powers until his retirement. The film closes with a summary. Although Stone's therapeutic approach ultimately did not prove to be effective, it would have helped him himself. In the final scene, Stone takes the dead Cassell's seat, playing cards with the two Jesuses.

Cast

[edit]

Production

[edit]

The film is an adaptation of The Three Christs of Ypsilanti,[10] Rokeach's 1964 book-length psychiatric case study of three patients whose paranoid schizophrenic delusions cause each of them to believe he is Jesus Christ.[11]

Three Christs began filming in New York in the summer of 2016.[12] The movie includes brief exterior shots of Ypsilanti locations, including the Water Tower and Michigan Avenue.[13]

Release

[edit]

The film had its world premiere in the Gala Presentations section at the 2017 Toronto International Film Festival.[7][8][9] It was released in theaters and on VOD by IFC Films on January 10, 2020.[14][2][4] It was released on Shout Factory on June 16, 2020.[2]

Reception

[edit]

Critical response

[edit]

On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 43% based on 51 reviews, with an average rating of 5.3/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "Three Christs is far from an unholy mess, but this fact-based drama forsakes its talented cast with a disappointingly facile treatment of genuinely interesting themes."[4] On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 39 out of 100, based on 13 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".[15]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Three Christs

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Three Christs of Ypsilanti is a 1964 book-length psychiatric case study by social psychologist , chronicling an experiment at in in which three men diagnosed with paranoid —Clyde Benson, Joseph Cassel, and Leon Gabor—each claiming to be the incarnation of Jesus Christ, were deliberately grouped together in a ward to confront and potentially dismantle their identical delusions through mutual contradiction and group therapy sessions. The study, initiated on July 1, 1959, and spanning nearly two years, employed interpersonal dynamics and staff-orchestrated deceptions—such as forged letters purportedly from divine authorities—to induce , yet the patients persistently rationalized conflicts by altering peripheral beliefs while clinging to their core messianic identities, demonstrating the resilience of entrenched delusions against external challenge. Rokeach ultimately concluded the intervention failed to eradicate the delusions, prompting his own reflection that it disabused him of the arrogance in assuming behavioral manipulation could override deeply held convictions, though the work yielded insights into belief system rigidity and in . The experiment has drawn enduring scrutiny for ethical shortcomings, including systematic deception without , psychological manipulation by researchers posing as authority figures, and inadequate long-term follow-up for participants, practices that, while aligned with 1950s-1960s psychiatric norms emphasizing therapeutic ends over patient rights, prefigured modern standards prioritizing autonomy and harm minimization.

The Ypsilanti Experiment

Patient Profiles

Joseph Cassel, aged 58 at the start of the study in 1959, had been admitted to Ypsilanti State Hospital in approximately 1940 after developing fixed messianic delusions around 1938. A loner and failed writer raised by a strict father who occasionally called him "Josephine," Cassel maintained the unshakeable belief that he was Christ and received divine directives through radio broadcasts and other modern media. Diagnosed with paranoid , his pre-experiment condition involved elaborate theological narratives integrating contemporary technology as proof of his divinity, with no recorded attempts to proselytize aggressively but persistent denial of alternative realities. Clyde Benson, an elderly farmer and chronic alcoholic in his early 70s by , had been institutionalized at Ypsilanti since around 1940, exhibiting longstanding delusions of being the of Christ. His background included rural isolation and substance dependency, leading to a of paranoid characterized by claims of immortality and divine authority, often expressed through passive withdrawal rather than confrontation. Benson's fixed beliefs denied personal mortality, weaving in elements of modern events like broadcasting to affirm his messianic role, with hospital records noting minimal insight into his condition prior to group placement. Leon Gabor, a 38-year-old veteran and college dropout admitted to Ypsilanti in 1954 or 1955, presented with identity confusion and the conviction that he was Christ reincarnated. Diagnosed as a paranoid schizophrenic with familial history of mental illness, Gabor's pre-experiment delusions involved sophisticated rationalizations rejecting death and incorporating radio signals as celestial communications, alongside a history of institutionalization tied to adjustment failures. His baseline state showed rigid adherence to these beliefs, with verbal elaborations adapting to challenges while maintaining core divinity claims, as documented in hospital evaluations.

Experimental Design and Methods

The , conducted by social psychologist at Ypsilanti State Hospital in , spanned from July 1, 1959, to August 15, 1961, and aimed to test the resilience of delusions through induced by housing three patients—each convinced of their unique identity as Christ—in close proximity without physical intervention. Selection criteria prioritized individuals with parallel messianic delusions to facilitate natural confrontation upon cohabitation, assigning them adjacent beds in Ward D-23, neighboring seats in the dining hall, and coordinated daily activities to maximize interpersonal exposure and verbal clashes over their incompatible claims. This setup drew from principles of theory, postulating that direct exposure to contradictory self-identities would compel rationalization or adjustment without relying on pharmacological modifications or coercive physical measures. Daily group sessions, typically held in the afternoon and facilitated by Rokeach alongside research assistants, centered on structured discussions where patients read from religious texts like the and addressed their delusions head-on through guided questioning and peer interactions. To amplify dissonance, non-directive prompts encouraged patients to reconcile their singular divine status with the others' assertions, emphasizing verbal persuasion and over medical alterations. The protocol maintained consistency in existing hospital routines, including any ongoing medications, to isolate the effects of interpersonal and rhetorical challenges on belief persistence. Supplementary tactics involved fabricated external stimuli, such as forged letters purportedly from authorities like the or invented radio announcements of global events inconsistent with their narratives, designed to introduce targeted inconsistencies and provoke defensive responses or belief reconfiguration. Assistants also impersonated figures from patients' s, such as familial relations, to deepen the psychological pressure through personalized deceptions. All interventions prioritized verbal and informational engineering to probe boundaries empirically. Outcomes were tracked via comprehensive logs of session transcripts, spontaneous verbalizations, and behavioral observations compiled over the 25-month period, cataloging rationalizations, patterns, and incremental belief shifts without quantitative metrics or control groups. Research staff shadowed participants during routine hospital activities to document unscripted interactions, ensuring a detailed qualitative record of how social confrontation influenced delusional maintenance. This methodical recording underscored the experiment's emphasis on observable causal mechanisms in belief systems under dissonance.

Observed Interactions and Outcomes

Upon initial group meetings in July 1959, the three patients—Clyde Benson, Joseph Cassel, and Leon—immediately clashed over their competing claims to be Jesus Christ, with assertions such as "You oughta worship me!" and "I am the Good Lord!" dominating interactions. Benson resolved the conflict by rationalizing the others as dead bodies reanimated by external machines, while Cassel dismissed them as insane fellow patients under his subordinate authority. Leon attributed their claims to deliberate lies or electronic impositions, maintaining his singular divine status. These defenses escalated to shouting matches and, within three weeks, physical violence when Benson struck Leon during a disagreement. Over the subsequent months, patients evolved their delusions to incorporate contradictions without altering core beliefs, increasingly relying on rationalizations documented in session transcripts. Cassel integrated rivals into a of his dominion over , viewing discrepancies as subordinate roles assigned by divine , while Benson persisted in machine-control explanations for any evidence challenging his identity. Leon initially denied mortality through claims of eternal recurrence but shifted to a new messianic as "Dr. Righteous Idealized Dung" by mid-1960, incorporating hermaphroditic and delusions to sustain amid interpersonal pressures. Transcript analysis revealed a rising frequency of such ad hoc justifications, with patients attributing inconsistencies to external deceptions or tests rather than reevaluating self-concepts. Partial successes emerged in secondary delusions, including temporary reductions in interpersonal paranoia and, for Leon, a renunciation of the explicit "Jesus" label by early 1961, though reframed within persistent grandiose narratives. Core messianic convictions endured unchanged across all three, with no evidence of belief disintegration despite prolonged exposure to contradictory claims. A tenuous mutual tolerance formed by late 1960, marked by avoidance rather than resolution. The experiment concluded on August 15, 1961, after two years, with patients separated and returned to individual wards; no full recoveries were observed, and limited follow-up indicated reversion to isolated, delusion-reinforcing behaviors. Benson and Cassel maintained primary identities without modification, while Leon's adjusted persona similarly relapsed into grandiosity absent group confrontation.

The Book by Milton Rokeach

Publication History

"" was first published in 1964 by in New York as a edition documenting the psychological experiment conducted at . The book drew from verbatim transcripts of group therapy sessions and Rokeach's direct observations spanning from July 1959 to August 1961, presenting the primary empirical record of interactions among the three patients. A British edition appeared the same year from Limited in . Author , a social psychologist and professor at , initiated the study amid his broader research into belief systems, dogmatism, and , aiming to explore how individuals with fixed delusions responded to interpersonal challenges to their self-conceptions. To safeguard patient confidentiality, Rokeach assigned pseudonyms—Rex for the patient claiming to be the reincarnation of , Clyde as the son of the Holy Ghost, and Joseph as the direct incarnation of Christ—though subsequent investigations have inferred their real identities from hospital records. The original served as a detailed rather than a basis for broad theoretical generalizations, with its transcripts forming the core evidence of delusional persistence and minor shifts under experimental conditions. Later editions included a 2011 reissue by Classics, featuring an introduction by novelist , which sustained academic and public interest in the work as a singular examination of shared delusions. This reissue, totaling 368 pages, has been referenced in psychological literature for its raw documentation, though it lacks quantifiable sales data and emphasizes qualitative insights over statistical generalizability.

Key Findings and Analysis

Rokeach observed that the patients' delusions operated as robust self-preserving systems, wherein each man prioritized the coherence of his self-identity as Jesus Christ over confronting empirical contradictions posed by the others' identical claims. Rather than abandoning their beliefs upon mutual exposure, the patients employed ad-hoc rationalizations to sustain uniqueness, such as Clyde Benson asserting that his companions were deceased individuals animated by internal "machines" mimicking Christ, or Joseph Cassel dismissing the others as insincere under external influence. These patterns revealed a systematic of shared realities, with reinterpretations of group interactions—such as meetings or daily ward encounters—framed to reinforce rather than undermine their core delusions. The experiment's design, involving prolonged and facilitated confrontations from July 1959 to August 1961, highlighted causal dynamics in delusion persistence: social pressures intensified but elicited defensive adaptations over belief revision, paralleling broader principles where fixed ideas resist logical disconfirmation. Rokeach inferred that such delusions stemmed from profound identity imperatives, serving as stabilizing constructs against psychological fragmentation, distinct from isolated hallucinations or purely sensory distortions. This challenged reductive biological framings by emphasizing interpersonal and self-referential mechanisms, as the patients' responses underscored how identity-bound beliefs reject external referents to preserve . Rokeach candidly noted methodological constraints, including the study's reliance on a minute sample of three chronic schizophrenic patients without a control group, and its focus on observations over roughly two years, which precluded robust causal attributions or broader applicability to formation. Despite these, the data illuminated delusions' tenacity, yielding insights into belief maintenance without effecting therapeutic breakthroughs.

Initial Academic Reception

Upon its 1964 publication, received praise from reviewers for its detailed transcripts of interactions, which provided vivid illustrations of delusional systems and their resilience in the face of contradiction. described the work as offering "new data and incisive commentary" on paranoid , portraying the patients' grandiose identities as creative responses to underlying low and existential distress. Similarly, a New York Review of Books assessment highlighted the "immediacy and authenticity" of the dialogues, likening them to the "poetry of madness" and noting their value in revealing how delusions interconnect with broader patterns of formation observed in and . Scholars appreciated the book's contribution to understanding , where conflicting evidence—such as direct confrontations among the patients—failed to dislodge entrenched delusions, influencing early discussions in theory and related fields. It garnered citations in educational materials on and during the late 1960s and 1970s, establishing its status as a descriptive rather than a controlled experiment, though it received no major awards. Early methodological critiques, however, questioned the study's replicability, given the rarity of selecting three patients with identical messianic delusions from Ypsilanti , and its reliance on qualitative observations without statistical or broader controls. Reviewers noted the descriptive strengths outweighed claims of therapeutic , as the two-year intervention did not alter core beliefs, limiting inferences about generalizability to other schizophrenic cases. These reservations positioned the work as an intriguing but non-generalizable exploration, valued more for raw phenomenological data than empirical proof of causal mechanisms in maintenance.

Ethical and Methodological Controversies

Deception and Manipulation Tactics

Rokeach employed fabricated correspondence as a core tactic to introduce targeted inconsistencies into the patients' delusional frameworks, drawing on the era's acceptance of unobtrusive interventions in clinical psychology prior to institutional review board mandates. Letters were forged to mimic communications from perceived authorities or familiars, delivered via hospital aides to maintain plausibility. For Joseph, these included missives purporting to originate from the Ypsilanti State Hospital superintendent or a figure named Dr. Yoder, which progressed from supportive advice on daily routines to direct challenges against his assertions of unique English heritage and divine identity. Similarly, Leon received a series of letters over weeks, ostensibly from "Madame Yeti Woman"—a constructed persona as his estranged wife—containing routine domestic directives, assurances of impending visits and financial support, and planted discrepancies like unfulfilled promises to provoke reevaluation of his self-conception. To amplify without overt confrontation, Rokeach disseminated a counterfeit newspaper clipping and article detailing a fabricated lecture he had given on the patients' shared messianic claims, which was presented to the group during sessions as ostensibly authentic external reportage. This method aimed to embed inconsistencies through simulated media validation of the experiment's premise. Additionally, interpersonal manipulations were orchestrated, such as deploying a to interact flirtatiously with Leon under false pretenses, introducing relational dynamics antithetical to his delusional isolation. For , a sham pharmacological intervention involved administering a dubbed "potent-valuemiocene," followed by its abrupt withdrawal, to simulate authoritative shifts in therapeutic protocol. These tactics were applied judiciously—typically in isolated, low-frequency bursts as recorded in daily logs—to evade patient detection and sustain experimental veracity, reflecting 1950s-1960s psychiatric conventions that tolerated non-disclosed manipulations absent formal protocols. Transcripts indicate patients initially expressed toward such intrusions, often attributing them to conspiratorial forces, before weaving the elements into augmented delusional constructs.

Patient Welfare and Long-Term Effects

During the experiment, which concluded on August 15, 1961, the patients displayed heightened agitation from interpersonal confrontations, manifesting in verbal disputes, defensive rationalizations, and occasional physical altercations, such as Clyde Benson striking Leon Gabor. No severe physical injuries resulted, and while some temporary participation in group interactions occurred, it primarily reinforced delusions rather than fostering therapeutic insight. Long-term follow-up revealed no enduring remission of the core messianic delusions, with patients either retaining their beliefs or substituting alternative grandiose identities without corresponding gains in functionality or independence. Leon Gabor, who temporarily disavowed his Christ claim toward the experiment's end, relapsed into new delusions, including self-identification as "Dr. Righteous Idealized Dung" and a Yeti-like figure. Clyde Benson and Joseph Cassel persisted in their original convictions, viewing the others as impostors or deceased entities. All three remained institutionalized, with limited or absent community reintegration. Manipulative interventions, such as fabricated correspondence implying personal losses or relationships, contributed to documented emotional distress, including Leon's reported depression, , and social withdrawal, which observed as exacerbating isolation rather than alleviating symptoms. Joseph Cassel died in 1976, still linked to Ypsilanti care. Empirical assessments post-1961 indicated no measurable enhancements in daily functioning or reduced reliance on institutional support, underscoring the experiment's to yield net welfare benefits amid induced confusion and persistent .

Rokeach's Later Reflections and Broader Critiques

In later reflections, acknowledged the inherent in his approach, describing the experiment as an instance of "playing " by attempting to manipulate deeply held delusions through contrived social and informational interventions. In an afterword added to a 1984 edition of his book, approximately twenty years after the study's conclusion, expressed regret over the overreach, admitting that the endeavor revealed more about his own assumptions of control than about therapeutic efficacy in altering core identity beliefs. From the 1970s onward, institutional review boards (IRBs) and ethical guidelines in increasingly classified the study as unethical, citing its reliance on deception and potential exploitation of vulnerable patients unable to provide . Critics, including some of Rokeach's former research assistants, condemned the work as morally indefensible for prioritizing experimental curiosity over participant dignity, with one assistant reportedly resigning due to discomfort with the manipulative tactics employed. Counterarguments in psychological discourse defend the experiment's scientific value, noting that pre-IRB era studies like this yielded rare empirical data on the interpersonal dynamics and resilience of delusions in —phenomena difficult or impossible to replicate under modern consent and oversight constraints. Proponents argue that forgoing such bold inquiries risks greater harm through stagnant knowledge on untreated psychotic disorders, where delusions persist without intervention, potentially leading to prolonged institutionalization or . The debate reflects broader tensions: sources aligned with , often in progressive outlets, emphasize non-maleficence and as paramount, framing the study as a of researcher overreach. In contrast, pragmatic perspectives, sometimes echoed in discussions favoring empirical progress over rigid ethics, contend that historical risks in research have advanced understanding of mental illness, outweighing isolated harms when aggregated against baseline suffering in . No consensus has emerged on reconciling experimental truth-seeking with ethical safeguards, leaving the study's legacy contested in ongoing methodological debates.

Film Adaptation

Development and Production

The development of the film adaptation of The Three Christs of Ypsilanti entered active status by May 2016, with directing and co-writing the screenplay alongside Eric Nazarian; the project drew loosely from Milton Rokeach's 1964 book, prioritizing narrative accessibility over strict historical fidelity. Principal photography commenced in New York during the summer of 2016, incorporating brief location shots in downtown , to evoke the original experiment's setting at Ypsilanti State Hospital. To heighten dramatic effect, the fictionalized Rokeach as the Dr. Alan Stone, a navigating institutional and personal tensions, while compressing the book's documented two-year patient interactions into a more concise timeframe and inventing staff interpersonal dynamics absent from Rokeach's clinical records. These alterations shifted focus from the original's empirical psychiatric logging toward interpersonal conflict and ethical quandaries, as noted in production-aligned commentary on the source material's challenges. In conjunction with the film's release, issued a tie-in edition of Rokeach's book in January 2020, featuring updated referencing the movie and an introduction contextualizing its basis in .

Casting and Filmmaking Choices

selected to portray Dr. Alan Stone, the film's fictionalized stand-in for psychologist , citing Gere's empathetic range after 12 to 15 months of collaboration. This choice emphasized interpretive depth in depicting Stone's intellectual pursuits, prioritizing dramatic nuance over verbatim replication of Rokeach's documented demeanor. The patient roles were filled by as Joseph Cassel (a late-50s failed writer of typical build), as Leon Gabor (late 30s veteran), and as Clyde Benson (nearing 70, an elderly farmer), with selections based on the actors' proven ability to deliver layered, humorous performances rather than physical fidelity to the historical men's ordinary statures and ages. Whitford, Avnet's frequent collaborator, was specifically tapped for Clyde to infuse the role with wry insight. Dinklage's , in particular, introduced a distinctive physical presence absent in the real Cassel, underscoring the adaptation's focus on symbolic representation through star-driven interpretation. Production recreated mid-1950s institutional environments, including ward sets and period attire, while sourcing dialogue from Rokeach's session transcripts but heightening emotional intensity for cinematic impact. , who co-wrote the script, consulted psychoanalyst Dr. Aaron Stern over four years to balance fidelity with storytelling, intentionally shifting from the source material's detached clinical analysis toward evoking viewer empathy and levity in the patients' humanity. Actors developed schizophrenic traits via independent , fostering organic yet amplified interactions that favored narrative engagement over empirical precision.

Plot Summary

(2017) dramatizes a 1959 psychiatric experiment at Michigan's Ypsilanti State Hospital, where fictional psychiatrist Dr. Alan Stone assembles three male patients diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia, each convinced he is Jesus Christ, for group therapy sessions aimed at confronting their shared messianic delusions through direct interpersonal conflict. The narrative follows their interactions in a controlled ward environment, highlighting clashes over divine identity and authority that mirror aspects of the real study but incorporate invented personal backstories, family dynamics, and emotional developments absent from historical records. While drawing from Milton Rokeach's documented case, the film diverges by emphasizing empathetic relational bonds and the psychiatrist's personal crises over the experiment's deceptive tactics, such as forged correspondence from fabricated relatives, portraying as a humanistic rather than a strictly manipulative intervention. Themes of self-identity, the of belief-challenging, and scientific emerge through the patients' evolving dialogues and Stone's reflections, culminating in ambiguous progress toward resolution without empirical validation of success. The runtime is 109 minutes, prioritizing dramatic arcs over detailed clinical data.

Release and Critical Response

The film Three Christs had its world premiere at the on September 12, 2017. It received a in the United States on January 3, 2020, distributed by IFC Films. The release was accompanied by simultaneous availability on platforms. Critically, the film holds a 41% approval rating on , based on 49 reviews, with an average score of 5.3/10. Metacritic assigns it a score of 39 out of 100 from 13 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable" reviews. Reviewers praised the performances, particularly as Dr. Alan Stone and as one of the patients, noting Gere's portrayal of a well-meaning but arrogant and the actors' ability to anchor the material. However, many criticized the film for its glib and clunky execution, arguing it oversimplifies complex psychological themes and resurrects clichés without sufficient depth. Ebert's review described it as "ill-considered whimsy" that fails to approach the subject with the seriousness it demands. Some outlets commended the film's empathetic depiction of mental illness and the power of human connection . Others faulted it for romanticizing the patients' delusions while glossing over the potential harms of therapeutic manipulation, resulting in a tonally uneven drama that drags despite its premise. At the , Three Christs grossed $36,723 domestically, reflecting its limited release and niche appeal. Post-theatrical, it became available on streaming services, contributing to modest ongoing viewership.

Psychological and Cultural Legacy

Insights into Delusions and

The experiment revealed that delusions in paranoid often operate as adaptive constructs that preserve self-coherence and identity, systematically deflecting contradictory evidence through rationalization and reconfiguration. When the three patients—each convinced of his —interacted daily from 1959 to 1961, they did not relinquish their core beliefs despite direct confrontations; instead, they incorporated rivals into their delusional frameworks, such as claiming others were mechanical replicas or subordinate impostors controlled by external forces. This pattern exemplified how delusions prioritize internal logical consistency over external reality, functioning to shield the ego from threats to self-worth amid perceived chaos. Such resistance underscored the social and communicative dimensions of schizophrenic delusions, beyond isolated neurochemical disruptions, as patients verbally negotiated and evolved their shared yet conflicting narratives over months of group therapy sessions. Rokeach observed that delusions drew from linguistic and referential systems, where patients drew on cultural archetypes like Christ to assert , adapting claims in response to interpersonal dynamics rather than yielding to empirical disconfirmation. This suggested causal pathways in belief formation rooted in disrupted social referencing and verbal reinforcement, prevalent in institutional settings with limited pharmacological interventions. The persistent failure of therapeutic confrontations to dismantle fixed highlighted inherent limits in talk-based interventions for identity-centric psychotic states, where challenges often provoked defensive elaborations rather than . Patients maintained delusion integrity for over two years, with minimal erosion even under sustained exposure to alternatives, indicating that core self-concepts exert causal primacy over evidential reasoning in such disorders. These observations informed later understandings of belief tenacity, paralleling phenomena like —where deficit unawareness mirrors delusional denial—though direct therapeutic breakthroughs remained elusive without addressing underlying referential disorganization.

Influence on Mental Health Practices

The experiment documented in The Three Christs of Ypsilanti demonstrated the ineffectiveness of direct confrontation in altering entrenched delusions, as the patients maintained their beliefs through elaborate rationalizations despite interpersonal conflicts and fabricated interventions, such as forged letters from supposed authorities. This outcome provided against overly optimistic claims for psychotherapeutic resolution of core psychotic symptoms, contributing to a post-1960s reevaluation of institutional talk therapies in favor of pharmacological interventions like , which targeted imbalances more reliably for symptom management. By 1970, use had expanded significantly, correlating with reduced reliance on prolonged institutional , though the experiment itself was not the primary driver of this shift. Ethically, the study's use of deception—without patient consent or awareness of the manipulations—sparked critiques that informed evolving standards for in psychiatric research and clinical practice. Rokeach's later admission of his own "God-like " in controlling the patients' environment underscored the risks of researcher overreach, aligning with broader 1960s-1970s reforms emphasizing patient autonomy and , including protections against coercive treatments. These reflections helped temper naive enthusiasm for experimental psychotherapies, promoting evidence-based protocols that prioritize voluntary participation and minimal harm, as seen in guidelines formalized in the 1970s. In contemporary practices, the findings caution against aggressive delusion-disputing techniques, influencing for (CBTp) to adopt collaborative, autonomy-respecting methods like guided self-testing of beliefs rather than imposed contradictions. While CBTp, developed in the , integrates elements of belief examination, it incorporates caveats from cases like Rokeach's to avoid exacerbating distress, focusing instead on functional and adherence. This evidence-based pivot has supported deinstitutionalization outcomes, with outpatient maintenance reducing relapse rates by up to 60% in longitudinal studies, though long-term effects underscore the need for combined approaches respecting patient agency.

Representations in Media and Debate

The "Three Christs" experiment has been retold in podcasts emphasizing its ethical shortcomings, such as the December 28, 2024, episode of , which describes the study as one of psychology's most unethical endeavors for deceiving vulnerable patients without consent to provoke . Other audio narratives, including archival discussions in programs like Snap Judgment, similarly frame the events through a lens of institutional overreach, highlighting Rokeach's manipulations like forged letters and false announcements to incite conflict among the patients. Ongoing debates center on the experiment's validity in probing delusion dynamics versus critiques portraying it as patient abuse. Patient-rights advocates, prevalent in post-1970s bioethics discourse, condemn the two-year intervention (1959–1961) as exploitative, arguing it violated by engineering interpersonal rivalries without therapeutic intent or , a view echoed in analyses labeling it a of unchecked researcher . Counterperspectives, including Rokeach's own 1964 reflections, defend the approach as a pioneering, if imperfect, effort to empirically test through social confrontation, yielding observational data on how fixed s adapt minimally to contradictory —prioritizing causal insights over modern ethical absolutism. Recent scholarship, such as a review in the Journal of Social Health and Anxiety, reexamines the case without endorsing replication, questioning parallels to other historical studies while underscoring Rokeach's admission that the experiment "cured" him of messianic delusions about altering patients' worldviews, thus validating indirect lessons on researcher bias but not clinical breakthroughs. No subsequent experiments have replicated the group confrontation model, attributed to standards post-1974 , with proponents arguing such ethical stringency impedes causal research into severe psychiatric conditions by deeming high-risk interventions inherently abusive. These tensions persist in discussions balancing patient protections against empirical progress, without resolution favoring one paradigm.

References

  1. https://www.nyrb.com/products/the-three-christs-of-ypsilanti
  2. https://www.npr.org/2014/05/02/309004267/the-three-christs-of-ypsilanti
  3. https://slate.com/technology/2010/05/the-three-christs-of-ypsilanti-what-happens-when-three-men-who-identify-as-jesus-are-forced-to-live-together.html
  4. https://datebook.sfchronicle.com/movies-tv/review-three-christs-a-dismal-take-on-schizophrenics-who-believe-theyre-god
  5. https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/18540261-the-three-christs-of-ypsilanti
  6. https://www.damninteresting.com/three-thrown-over-the-cuckoos-nest/
  7. https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/three-christs-of-ypsilanti-rick-moody-jesus-christ-john-avnet-joseph-cassel-leon-gabor-clyde-benson-6236913/
  8. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20041299/
  9. https://www.shortform.com/podcast/episode/stuff-you-should-know-2024-12-28-episode-summary-selects-the-three-christs-of-ypsilanti-experiment
  10. https://elementsofmadness.com/2020/01/07/three-christs/
  11. https://josha-journal.org/download_pdf/three-christs-of-ypsilanti-the-unholy-trinity?locale=en
  12. https://archive.org/download/TheThreeChristsOfYpsilanti/The%2520Three%2520Christs%2520of%2520Ypsilanti.pdf
  13. https://cdn.bookey.app/files/pdf/book/en/the-three-christs-of-ypsilanti.pdf
  14. https://casbs.stanford.edu/three-christs-ypsilanti-psychological-study
  15. https://www.abebooks.com/first-edition/Three-Christs-Ypsilanti-Psychological-Study-ROKEACH/31004933785/bd
  16. https://www.simonandschuster.com/authors/Milton-Rokeach/1451486
  17. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/three-christs-of-ypsilanti-by-milton-rokeach-nyrb-classics-2011-1099-pb-325pp-isbn-9781590173848/B3ADD63E477FF8C58C5CC4C47A35CC9C
  18. https://www.amazon.com/Three-Christs-Ypsilanti-Review-Classics/dp/1590173848
  19. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1964/06/11/the-poetry-of-madness/
  20. https://www.bookey.app/book/the-three-christs-of-ypsilanti
  21. https://www.nytimes.com/1964/04/05/archives/a-question-of-identity-the-three-christs-of-ypsilanti-a.html
  22. https://www.facebook.com/groups/exadventist/posts/8129071390469154/
  23. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED113238.pdf
  24. https://www.grunge.com/1043518/the-true-story-behind-the-experiment-of-three-christs-of-ypsilanti/
  25. https://allthatsinteresting.com/three-christs
  26. https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v33/n18/jenny-diski/diary
  27. https://ideaexchange.uakron.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1001&context=psychologyfromthemargins
  28. https://www.iheart.com/podcast/1119-stuff-you-should-know-26940277/episode/the-three-christs-of-ypsilanti-experiment-85458422/
  29. https://www.movieinsider.com/m14399/three-christs
  30. https://movies.fandom.com/wiki/Three_Christs
  31. https://www.npr.org/2020/01/09/794533676/three-christs-a-too-simple-film-about-the-messiah-complex
  32. https://variety.com/2020/film/reviews/three-christs-review-1203463065/
  33. https://www.nyrb.com/products/the-three-christs-of-ypsilanti-movie-tie-in-edition
  34. https://www.comingsoon.net/movies/features/1116227-cs-interview-director-jon-avnet-on-the-importance-of-telling-three-christs-story
  35. https://www.forbes.com/sites/simonthompson/2020/01/07/walton-goggins-and-director-jon-avnet-talk-three-christs/
  36. https://www.imdb.com/title/tt5706370/
  37. https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/10/theater/3-christs-about-milton-rokeachs-1959-study.html
  38. https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/three-christs-movie-review-2020
  39. https://www.imdb.com/title/tt5706370/releaseinfo/
  40. https://www.boxofficemojo.com/title/tt5706370/
  41. https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/three_christs
  42. https://www.metacritic.com/movie/three-christs/
  43. https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/movies/story/2020-01-09/three-christs-review-richard-gere
  44. https://www.commonsensemedia.org/movie-reviews/three-christs
  45. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6860396/
  46. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328116287_Delusions_in_Context
  47. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20063200/
  48. https://www.iheart.com/podcast/1119-stuff-you-should-know-26940277/episode/selects-the-three-christs-of-ypsilanti-252517404/
  49. https://mediaplayer.whro.org/program/snapjudgement/archive
  50. https://www.iflscience.com/three-people-believing-they-were-jesus-were-once-brought-together-for-a-very-unethical-experiment-60245
  51. https://www.academia.edu/103742753/Three_Christs_of_Ypsilanti_The_Unholy_Trinity
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.