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Peacock flounder
Peacock flounder
Peacock flounder
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Peacock flounder
Bothus mancus in Polynesia
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Carangiformes
Suborder: Pleuronectoidei
Family: Bothidae
Genus: Bothus
Species:
B. mancus
Binomial name
Bothus mancus
(Broussonet, 1782)

The peacock flounder (Bothus mancus), also known as the flowery flounder, is a species of fish in the family Bothidae (lefteye flounders). The species is found widely in relatively shallow waters in the Indo-Pacific, also ranging into warmer parts of the East Pacific.[2]

Description

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Peacock flounder

The peacock flounder is also called flowery flounder because it is covered in superficially flower-like bluish spots. As suggested by the family name, lefteye flounders have both eyes on top of the left hand side of their heads. The eyes are raised up on short stumps like radar dishes, and can move in any direction independent of each other. That feature provides flounders with a wide range of view. One eye can look forward while the other looks backward at the same time. The baby flounders have one eye on each side of their bodies like ordinary fish, and swim like other fishes do, but later on, as they undergo maturation to adulthood, the right eye moves to the left side, and flounders start to swim sideways, which gives them the ability to settle down flat on the bottom.[3][4] The maximum length of this flounder is about 45 centimetres (18 in).[2]

Habitat

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Peacock flounders are mostly found in shallow water on sandy bottoms. Sometimes they rest over piles of dead corals or bare rock. They may be found as deep as 150 meters (490 ft).[4]

Behavior

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Diet

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As most flounders, the peacock flounder is mainly nocturnal,[2] but is sometimes also active during the day.[3] It hunts for small fish, crabs and shrimp.[3]

Reproduction

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Peacock flounders breed in late winter and early spring. After the female releases two to three million eggs, males fertilize them. The fertilized eggs float close to the surface, carried by the currents, and hatch in 15 days. Before hatching the eggs sink to the bottom. For the next four to six months baby flounders float in the open ocean, sometimes hundreds of miles from the place the eggs were released and hatched. During those months the right eye of the juvenile slowly moves to the left side.[3]

Color change

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Four frames of the same fish taken a few minutes apart showing the ability of flounders to change colors to match the surroundings
If one of the eyes is damaged or covered by sand, flounders have difficulties in matching their colors to the surroundings

Like all flounders, peacock flounders are masters of camouflage. They use cryptic coloration to avoid being detected by both prey and predators. Whenever possible rather than swim they crawl on their fins along the bottom while constantly changing colors and patterns. In a study, peacock flounders demonstrated the ability to change colors in just eight seconds. They were even able to match the pattern of a checkerboard they were placed on. The changing of the colors is an extremely complex and not well understood process. It involves the flounder's vision and hormones. The flounders match the colors of the surface by releasing different pigments to the surface of the skin cells while leaving some of the cells white by sequestering those pigments. If one of the flounder's eyes is damaged or covered by sand, the flounders have difficulties in matching their colors to their surroundings. When hunting or hiding from predators, the flounders bury themselves in the sand, leaving only the eyes protruding.[3][5][6]

References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Peacock flounder

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The peacock flounder (Bothus lunatus), a of left-eyed in the family Bothidae, is renowned for its exceptional abilities, rapidly altering its skin color and pattern to blend seamlessly with sandy or substrates in shallow marine environments. This benthic predator, characterized by a compressed, oval-shaped body with both eyes positioned on the eyed (left) side, features a base color of gray to brown accented by numerous small blue spots, blue rings, and occasional darker ocelli, enabling it to mimic surrounding textures like , gravel, or rubble. Native to tropical and subtropical waters, the peacock flounder inhabits clear sandy plains near coral reefs, seagrass beds, mangroves, and occasionally rocky areas, typically at depths of 0–20 meters but ranging up to 100 meters. Its distribution spans the western Atlantic from and southward to , excluding the , with additional populations in the eastern Atlantic around and the . Reaching a maximum length of 46 cm (though commonly 35 cm), it exhibits , with males possessing threadlike upper pectoral rays. Behaviorally, the peacock flounder is diurnal, spending much of the night partially buried in sediment and emerging during the day to small fishes, crustaceans, and cephalopods, which it captures using its protrusible and quick strikes. During from larval to juvenile stages, its right eye migrates to the left side, a hallmark of pleuronectiform flatfishes, allowing it to lie flat on the seafloor. Reproduction occurs via , with adults engaging in displays involving vertical rises off the bottom to release gametes into the water column, though specific spawning seasons vary by region. Classified as Least Concern by the IUCN due to its wide range and lack of major threats, the supports minor commercial fisheries and is popular in the aquarium trade, though in localized areas could pose future risks. Its chromatophore-based color change, which can occur in 2–8 seconds, not only aids in predation and evasion but also highlights adaptive evolutionary traits in reef-associated flatfishes.

Taxonomy and identification

Taxonomy

The peacock flounder is scientifically classified as Bothus lunatus (Linnaeus, 1758), within the family Bothidae (lefteye flounders) and the order Pleuronectiformes (flatfishes). Originally described as Pleuronectes lunatus in Linnaeus's Systema Naturae, this species is characterized by the typical lefteye configuration where both eyes migrate to the left side of the head during development. Common names for B. lunatus include peacock flounder and plate fish, reflecting its ornate dermal patterns. The name "peacock flounder" is also applied to the morphologically similar Bothus mancus, an species, which has historically caused confusion in identification due to overlapping common . Within the genus Bothus, B. lunatus is distinguished from congeners like B. mancus primarily by its geographic distribution in the Atlantic and the specific arrangement of blue spots and rings on the eyed side, often accompanied by two or three diffuse dark smudges along the .

Physical characteristics

The peacock flounder (Bothus lunatus) is a characterized by a laterally compressed, disk-shaped body that is oval to nearly circular in form, with adults exhibiting typical of lefteye flounders, where both eyes are positioned on the left (ocular) side. This flattened morphology allows the fish to lie flat on the bottom, with the right (blind) side facing downward. Adults reach a maximum total length of 46 cm (18 in), though they commonly attain 35 cm (14 in). The body coloration of adults is predominantly gray to brown, adorned with numerous spots and flower-like rings, often accompanied by two or three diffuse dark smudges along the , which aid in species identification and serve a role in . In contrast, juveniles are bilaterally symmetric with eyes positioned one on each side and a nearly transparent body marked by scattered melanophores, lacking the prominent pigmentation of adults. A key developmental change occurs during the larval-to-juvenile metamorphosis, when the right eye migrates across the top of the head to join the left eye, resulting in the adult's lefteye configuration; this process takes place over the metamorphic stage, typically spanning 30-60 days in flatfish larvae as they transition from pelagic to benthic life. Accompanying this ocular migration, the body flattens further, scales develop (cycloid on the eyed side), and teeth emerge in the jaws. Anatomically, the peacock flounder features a large, oblique mouth with protrusible jaws equipped with an irregular double row of small teeth, extending beyond the anterior margin of the lower eye to facilitate prey capture. The dorsal and anal fins provide stability during undulating locomotion on the seafloor, while the pectoral fins—elongated on the eyed side, especially in males with threadlike upper rays—enable crawling and aid in maneuvering. The caudal fin is rounded to bluntly pointed, contributing to overall balance.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The peacock flounder (Bothus lunatus) is found in tropical and subtropical waters of the Atlantic Ocean. In the Western Atlantic, its range extends from and , including and , southward to , but it is absent from the . Populations also occur in the Eastern Atlantic around and in the . It inhabits waters from 0 to 100 (0 to 328 feet), though it is most common in shallower depths up to 20 where sandy or substrates are prevalent.

Preferred habitats

The peacock flounder (Bothus lunatus) inhabits primarily sandy substrates in tropical Atlantic waters, where it often partially buries itself in the for and to prey. This benthic lifestyle is favored in clear, soft-bottom environments that allow for effective concealment, including sandy plains adjacent to reefs and fields. Individuals are frequently associated with beds and fringes, as well as areas over dead , rock outcrops, or algae-covered substrates, which provide additional structural complexity for resting and hunting. These habitats typically occur in low-current zones that support the ' sedentary and ability to match surrounding patterns. Depths range from 0 to 100 m, though they are most common in shallower waters up to 20 m. Preferred water conditions include temperatures between 25.2°C and 28°C, with a mean of 27.3°C, in fully marine salinities. These subtropical to tropical parameters align with the in warm, stable coastal ecosystems.

Life history

Behavior and locomotion

The peacock flounder (Bothus lunatus) exhibits diurnal activity patterns, remaining active during daylight hours while resting at night on the ocean floor. During the day, individuals typically lie in on sandy or substrates, often partially buried to blend with their surroundings, and emerge to pursue prey or relocate as needed. At night, they adopt a more sedentary posture, with reduced movement, conserving energy in their benthic environment. Locomotion in the peacock flounder is adapted for stealth and efficiency over short distances in complex habitats. Primary movement occurs via fincrawling, where wave-like undulations of the dorsal and anal fins propagate posteriorly, creating contact points with the substrate to propel the body forward in a manner. Individuals can also walk along the bottom using their enlarged pectoral fins for support and , or reverse fin wave direction to move backward. This low-profile locomotion minimizes disturbance to surrounding and allows precise navigation around structures without sustained swimming. Social interactions among peacock flounders are minimal, with individuals generally solitary and avoiding close contact outside of occasional loose aggregations in high-density habitats. They do not form schools or exhibit behaviors, instead maintaining to reduce competition for sites. When territories overlap, subtle displays such as fin flares may occur, but overt aggression is rare. To evade predation, peacock flounders rely on a combination of immobility and rapid escape responses. Upon detecting a threat, they often freeze in place, leveraging their to remain undetected, or quickly bury themselves in by undulating their body and fins to displace . If burial is insufficient, they execute fast-start maneuvers using opercular jetting and tail beats to flee at high speed, seeking cover in nearby crevices or deeper substrate. These strategies effectively reduce encounter rates with predators such as snappers and .

Feeding ecology

The peacock flounder (Bothus lunatus) is a carnivorous with a diet primarily consisting of small bony fishes, mobile benthic crustaceans such as shrimps and , and cephalopods including octopuses and squid. Specific prey items observed include French grunts, Caribbean sharpnose puffers, and various mollusks, reflecting its opportunistic feeding habits as a benthic predator that exploits available resources in sandy and rubble substrates. Adults are strictly limited to animal prey. As an , the peacock flounder employs a sit-and-wait strategy, partially burying itself in or on its eyed side up, utilizing rapid color and pattern changes via melanophores to blend seamlessly with the surroundings and avoid detection by potential prey. Once prey approaches within striking range, it lunges with a swift extension of its protrusible jaws to capture items like small or , often targeting toxic species such as puffers by stunning them prior to consumption. This is facilitated by its benthic lifestyle in clear, areas adjacent to reefs, seagrass beds, or mangroves, where it remains motionless for extended periods to maximize ambush success. Feeding activity in the peacock flounder occurs primarily during the day, though it may extend into crepuscular or nocturnal periods depending on prey availability and environmental conditions. Within reef food webs, it occupies a mid-to-upper of approximately 4.5, functioning as a secondary or tertiary that controls populations of smaller fishes and while serving as prey for larger predators such as , rays, snappers, and groupers. This position underscores its role in maintaining benthic community balance, though specific predation by octopuses remains undocumented in primary studies.

Reproduction and development

The peacock flounder (Bothus lunatus) exhibits during spawning, with no provided to the eggs or offspring. It has a lifespan of up to 10 years. Breeding occurs serially and year-round in tropical regions, though it is often triggered by seasonal water fluctuations, such as warming trends in late winter to early spring. Spawning involves a distinctive where males defend territories and signal readiness by erecting their pectoral fins, while females respond with fin movements; pairs then rise synchronously off the bottom substrate, arch their bodies, and release gametes simultaneously in a brief ascent lasting about 15 seconds. Females produce large batches of pelagic eggs, which are broadcast into the water column and fertilized externally by males, resulting in a clustered mass of gametes that disperses quickly. The eggs are buoyant and drift near the surface, carried by currents, before sinking slightly prior to after approximately 15 days. Upon , the larvae are small, transparent, bilaterally symmetrical forms; early larvae measure 5.4 to 13.0 mm in standard length, featuring a deep body, minimal pigmentation, and a prominent elongated anterior ray; they remain pelagic for 4 to 6 months, feeding on while undergoing flexion and pre-metamorphic growth. Larval development culminates in , during which the right eye migrates to the left side through a unique base separation, the body flattens asymmetrically, and pigmentation develops primarily on the eyed (left) side; post-metamorphic juveniles settle to the bottom at lengths of 16.6 to 39.5 , marking the transition to a benthic . This process is associated with high early-stage mortality due to predation by , ctenophores, , and . Sexual dimorphism is evident in size and fin morphology, with females growing larger than males and lacking the threadlike upper pectoral fin rays characteristic of males.

Adaptations

Camouflage mechanisms

The peacock flounder, Bothus lunatus, achieves rapid color change through specialized cells known as chromatophores, which include melanophores, xanthophores, erythrophores, iridophores, and leucophores. These cells enable dynamic adjustments in pigmentation and reflectance to match surrounding substrates. Iridophores, containing platelets, contribute to by reflecting light, while pigment-containing chromatophores expand or contract to alter hue and pattern. This process is primarily controlled by the for quick responses, with hormonal influences from the pituitary helping to stabilize adaptations over longer periods. Color changes occur remarkably fast, typically within 2–8 seconds, allowing the flounder to blend with diverse backgrounds such as , rocky surfaces, or . This speed is facilitated by neural signals that trigger motility, enabling the fish to shift from uniform tones on to spotted or barred patterns on more textured environments. The primary triggers are visual cues detected by the flounder's upward-facing eyes, which scan the substrate and initiate the response without requiring direct contact. These mechanisms serve multiple functions, including evasion of predators during resting, hunting of small and crustaceans, and general concealment while inactive. However, limitations exist: color adaptation slows or fails in complete darkness, where visual input is absent, or if the eyes are covered or damaged, preventing accurate assessment of the environment. Unlike static coloration in many species, the peacock flounder's dynamic system provides active, context-specific . Evolutionarily, this confers a strong advantage by significantly reducing predation risk; experiments with related flatfishes demonstrate that individuals with matched coloration exhibit substantially higher rates compared to mismatched ones in controlled predator encounters.

Sensory capabilities

The peacock flounder (Bothus lunatus) exhibits advanced visual adaptations suited to its benthic lifestyle, with both eyes positioned on the left (ocular) side of the head, enabling and critical for identifying prey and evading predators on the seafloor. This configuration allows stereoscopic depth cues when the eyes converge, enhancing accuracy in judging distances for ambush strikes or threat assessment. in flatfishes like B. lunatus supports fine discrimination of substrate textures and patterns, as demonstrated in studies of related where resolution enables selection of camouflaging backgrounds. The eyes are mounted on short stalks and capable of independent movement, collectively scanning a approaching 360 degrees to monitor the environment above and around the body while the fish remains . This mobility facilitates sensitivity to motion, allowing detection of subtle water displacements from nearby organisms, and to color contrasts, providing real-time feedback for adaptive skin patterning. In tropical flounders of the Bothus , including B. lunatus, visual input drives rapid camouflage adjustments in 2–8 seconds, matching environmental colors and graininess for . Damage or obstruction to one eye severely impairs this process, as unilateral vision disrupts the binocular coordination needed for effective pattern replication and environmental matching. Complementing vision, the system in B. lunatus consists of mechanosensory neuromasts along the body and head, detecting low-frequency vibrations, pressure changes, and water currents to sense approaching predators or prey movements without visual confirmation. This system exhibits bilateral typical of flatfishes, with reduced canals on the blind side but functional pores aiding orientation and rheotaxis in sandy habitats. B. lunatus lacks electroreceptive organs, relying instead on these hydrodynamic cues for non-visual detection in low-light or turbid conditions. Chemosensory abilities in B. lunatus include olfaction via paired nares for detecting dissolved prey odors over distances and gustation through distributed across the mouth and body surface for close-range evaluation during feeding. These senses support prey location in sediment but are secondary to vision in the well-lit environments preferred by the species. Sensory integration prioritizes visual dominance for ambush predation and evasion, with and chemosensory inputs providing supplementary context for coordinated responses, such as burrowing or fleeing when multiple cues indicate danger.

Conservation and human interactions

Conservation status

The peacock flounder (Bothus lunatus) is classified as Least Concern by the , with the assessment conducted on 21 August 2012. This status reflects its wide distribution in the western from and southward to (excluding the ), and in the eastern Atlantic around and the , where it inhabits sandy and rubble substrates near reefs, seagrass beds, and mangroves at depths of 0–100 m. Populations appear stable, with no evidence of significant decline, though comprehensive quantitative data are limited due to sparse monitoring. Potential threats include habitat degradation from coral reef loss due to coastal development, , and (e.g., elevated sea temperatures and ), as well as small-scale subsistence and . However, these impacts are considered minor at a global scale and do not appear to drive population reductions. The species is not severely fragmented, and ongoing reef protection efforts in the and western Atlantic support its resilience.

Role in fisheries and aquaria

The peacock flounder holds minor commercial significance in western Atlantic fisheries, where it is occasionally captured as in trawl nets, traps, and artisanal operations targeting other reef fishes. It is marketed fresh for local consumption due to its palatable flesh, but annual catches are low and not quantified regionally. In the marine aquarium trade, the species is popular for its exceptional abilities, which allow it to blend with substrates, appealing to hobbyists and aquariums. Most specimens are wild-collected from the and , as is uncommon due to challenges in simulating natural conditions. Collection is generally sustainable given the species' stable populations and wide range. Management occurs under broader regional frameworks, such as fishery regulations, which aim to prevent through monitoring and protection, though species-specific quotas are absent.

References

  1. https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/species-profiles/peacock-flounder/
  2. https://fishbase.se/summary/Speciessummary.php?id=978
  3. https://biogeodb.stri.si.edu/caribbean/en/thefishes/species/4313
  4. https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Bothus_lunatus/
  5. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/190102/16510777
  6. https://animalia.bio/plate-fish
  7. https://www.fishbase.se/summary/Speciessummary.php?id=978
  8. http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=274187
  9. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225943492_Early_life_history_stages_of_peacock_flounder_Bothus_lunatusBothidae_from_the_western_and_central_tropical_Atlantic
  10. https://www.texassaltwaterfishingmagazine.com/fishing/education/texas-parks-wildlife-field-notes/flatfish-don-start-out-flat
  11. https://sta.uwi.edu/fst/lifesciences/sites/default/files/lifesciences/images/Bothus_lunatus%20-%20Peacock%20Flounder.pdf
  12. https://www.fishbase.se/summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=978
  13. https://hal.science/hal-04402521/document
  14. https://www.fishbase.se/summary/Bothus-lunatus
  15. http://fishbase.se/manual/English/fishbasetrophic_ecology00002692.htm
  16. https://doi.org/10.1134/S0032945208070059
  17. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12242705/
  18. https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Marine_Biology_and_Marine_Ecology/A_Student%27s_Guide_to_Tropical_Marine_Biology/02%3A_Common_Fish_in_the_Coral_Reef/02.7%3A_Peacock_Flounder
  19. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5383827/
  20. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022098108001251
  21. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227777236_Comparison_of_visual_acuity_and_visual_axis_of_three_flatfish_species_with_different_ecotypes
  22. https://www.vliz.be/imisdocs/publications/346988.pdf
  23. https://www.nature.com/articles/379815a0
  24. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/azo.12311
  25. https://www.fau.edu/science/documents/ngk19.pdf
  26. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23308249.2016.1249279
  27. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10653184/
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