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In particle physics and nuclear physics, the branching fraction (or branching ratio) for a decay is the fraction of particles which decay by an individual decay mode or with respect to the total number of particles which decay. It applies to either the radioactive decay of atoms or the decay of elementary particles.^[1] It is equal to the ratio of the partial decay constant of the decay mode to the overall decay constant. Sometimes a partial half-life is given, but this term is misleading; due to competing modes, it is not true that half of the particles will decay through a particular decay mode after its partial half-life. The partial half-life is merely an alternate way to specify the partial decay constant $λ$ , the two being related through:

t_{1/2}={\frac {\ln 2}{\lambda }}.

For example, for decays of ¹³²Cs, 98.13% are ε (electron capture) or β⁺ (positron) decays, and 1.87% are β⁻ (electron) decays. The half-life of this isotope is 6.480 days,^[2] which corresponds to a total decay constant of 0.1070 d⁻¹. Then the partial decay constants, as computed from the branching fractions, are 0.1050 d⁻¹ for ε/β⁺ decays, and 2.001×10⁻³ d⁻¹ for β⁻ decays. Their respective partial half-lives are 6.603 d and 347 d.

Isotopes with significant branching of decay modes include copper-64, arsenic-74, rhodium-102, indium-112, iodine-126 and holmium-164.

Branching fractions of atomic states

[edit]

In the field of atomic, molecular, and optical physics, a branching fraction refers to the probability of decay to a specific lower-lying energy states from some excited state. Suppose we drive a transition in an atomic system to an excited state $|e⟩$ , which can decay into either the ground state $|g⟩$ or a long-lived state $|d⟩$ . If the probability to decay (the branching fraction) into the $|g⟩$ state is ⁠ $p$ ⁠, then the probability to decay into the other state $|d⟩$ would be ⁠ $1-p$ ⁠.^[3] Further possible decays would split appropriately, with their probabilities summing to 1.

In some instances, instead of a branching fraction, a branching ratio is used. In this case, the branching ratio is just the ratio of the branching fractions between two states. To use our example from before, if the branching fraction to state $|g⟩$ is ⁠ $p$ ⁠, then the branching ratio comparing the transition rates to $|g⟩$ and $|d⟩$ would be ⁠ ${\frac {p}{1-p}}$ ⁠.

Branching fractions can be measured in a variety of ways, including time-resolved recording of the atom's fluorescence during a series of population transfers in the relevant states.^[4]^[3]

References

[edit]

^ IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 5th ed. (the "Gold Book") (2025). Online version: (2006–) "branching fraction". doi:10.1351/goldbook.B00725
^ Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3) 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae.
^ ^a ^b Ramm, Michael; Pruttivarasin, Thaned; Kokish, Mark; Talukdar, Ishan; Häffner, Hartmut (2013-07-12). "Precision measurement method for branching fractions of excited P(1/2) states applied to 40Ca+". Physical Review Letters. 111 (2) 023004. arXiv:1305.0858. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.111.023004. ISSN 1079-7114. PMID 23889393.
^ Zhang, Helena; Gutierrez, Michael; Low, Guang Hao; Rines, Richard; Stuart, Jules; Wu, Tailin; Chuang, Isaac (2016-12-15). "Iterative precision measurement of branching ratios applied to 5 P states in 88 Sr +". New Journal of Physics. 18 (12): 123021. arXiv:1605.04210. doi:10.1088/1367-2630/aa511d. ISSN 1367-2630.

External links

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LBNL Isotopes Project
Particle Data Group (listings for particle physics)
Nuclear Structure and Decay Data - IAEA for nuclear decays

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In physics, particularly particle, nuclear, and atomic physics, the branching fraction (also known as the branching ratio) is the probability that an unstable particle or nucleus will decay via a specific mode relative to all possible decay channels. In particle physics, it is defined as the ratio of the partial decay width

\Gamma_i

for that mode to the total decay width

\Gamma

of the particle, expressed as

B_i = \Gamma_i / \Gamma

.^[1]^[2] This dimensionless quantity, which sums to unity across all decay modes for a given particle, quantifies the relative likelihood of competing decay processes governed by fundamental interactions such as the strong, electromagnetic, or weak forces.^[3]^[1] Branching fractions provide essential insights into the underlying dynamics of particle decays and serve as key observables for validating theoretical predictions, particularly within the Standard Model of particle physics.^[4] For instance, discrepancies between measured and predicted branching fractions can signal new physics beyond the Standard Model, as seen in studies of rare B meson decays at experiments like LHCb.^[5] They also influence the interpretation of particle lifetimes, since the mean lifetime

\tau

relates to the total width via

\tau = \hbar / \Gamma

, while partial lifetimes for specific modes are extended by the inverse of the branching fraction.^[3] Experimentally, branching fractions are determined by observing the number of events in a particular decay mode, normalized to the total number of produced particles and corrected for detection efficiencies and backgrounds, often using techniques like invariant mass reconstruction and maximum-likelihood fits in collider data.^[6] Authoritative compilations, such as those from the Particle Data Group, aggregate hundreds of measurements from facilities like CERN's Large Hadron Collider and LEP collider to derive precise values through global fits, enabling comparisons across particles like the

\tau

lepton (with over 240 modes) or charmonium states.^[7]^[8] Notable examples include the

\tau^- \to e^- \bar{\nu}_e \nu_\tau

mode, with a branching fraction of (17.82 ± 0.04)%, and the

\mu^- \to e^- \bar{\nu}_e \nu_\mu

decay, which has a branching fraction of essentially 100%.^[7]^[1]

Definition and Fundamentals

Definition

The branching fraction quantifies the probability that a particle, atom, or nucleus in an excited or unstable state will undergo decay or transition through a particular mode relative to all possible modes available to it. This measure arises in contexts where multiple decay or transition pathways compete, such as in the spontaneous disintegration of unstable particles or the radiative relaxation of excited atomic states. It provides a normalized fraction indicating the relative likelihood of each pathway, essential for understanding the dynamics of unstable systems across particle, atomic, and nuclear physics.^[7]^[9] Mathematically, the branching fraction for a specific mode

f

is given by

B_f = \frac{\Gamma_f}{\Gamma},

where

\Gamma_f

represents the partial decay width for mode

f

and

\Gamma

is the total decay width encompassing all modes. This formulation highlights its role as a ratio of rates, independent of the absolute timescale of the process. As a dimensionless quantity, it is typically expressed as a decimal fraction (e.g., 0.37) or percentage (e.g., 37%), facilitating comparisons across diverse physical systems.^[7]

Mathematical Formulation

The exponential decay of an unstable particle population is governed by the differential equation

\frac{dN}{dt} = -\Gamma N

, where

N(t)

is the number of particles at time

t

and

\Gamma

is the total decay width, representing the total decay rate in natural units where

\hbar = 1

.^[10] Solving this yields the familiar exponential form

N(t) = N_0 e^{-\Gamma t}

, with the mean lifetime

\tau = 1/\Gamma

.^[10] When a particle can decay through multiple channels, the total decay width is the sum of partial decay widths for each mode:

\Gamma = \sum_i \Gamma_i

, where

\Gamma_f

denotes the partial width for a specific final state

f

.^[11] The branching fraction

B_f

for mode

f

is the fraction of decays proceeding through that channel, given by

B_f = \frac{\Gamma_f}{\Gamma} = \frac{\Gamma_f}{\sum_i \Gamma_i}

.^[11] Substituting the lifetime relation, this simplifies to

B_f = \tau \Gamma_f

. In collider experiments, the branching fraction often appears in combination with the production cross-section

\sigma

of the particle, as the expected number of observed events for mode

f

is proportional to

\sigma \cdot L \cdot B_f

, where

L

is the integrated luminosity.^[12] This product

\sigma B_f

defines an effective branching fraction, which quantifies the observability of the decay mode given the production rate.^[12] Uncertainties in measured branching fractions arise from those in the partial and total widths. For uncorrelated errors, the relative uncertainty propagates approximately as

\frac{\Delta B_f}{B_f} \approx \sqrt{ \left( \frac{\Delta \Gamma_f}{\Gamma_f} \right)^2 + \left( \frac{\Delta \Gamma}{\Gamma} \right)^2 }

BfΔBf≈(ΓfΔΓf)2+(ΓΔΓ)2

, derived from the general formula for error propagation in ratios.^[13] This approximation assumes Gaussian statistics and linearizes the functional dependence, with more precise treatments using covariance matrices for correlated measurements.^[13]

Applications in Particle Physics

Role in Particle Decays

In particle physics, branching fractions play a central role in characterizing the decays of unstable particles, such as mesons and bosons, which often proceed through multiple possible channels governed by the weak interaction. For a particle with several decay modes, the branching fraction

B

for a specific mode represents the probability that the decay occurs via that pathway, summing to unity over all allowed channels. This quantification is essential for experimental strategies, particularly in searches for rare decays with small

B

values, as it guides the required luminosity and detection efficiency to observe statistically significant events amidst dominant backgrounds.^[14] A illustrative example is the decay of the charged pion (

\pi^+

), which primarily undergoes leptonic decays. The dominant channel is

\pi^+ \to \mu^+ \nu_\mu

with a branching fraction of

(99.98770 \pm 0.00004)\%

, while the rarer mode

\pi^+ \to e^+ \nu_e

occurs with

B = (1.230 \pm 0.004) \times 10^{-4}

. This stark disparity arises from phase-space and helicity suppression in the electronic mode, highlighting how branching fractions reveal the relative strengths of decay amplitudes and inform precision tests of weak interaction dynamics.^[15] Branching fractions are pivotal in testing the Standard Model (SM), where theoretical predictions for rare processes can signal new physics through deviations in measured values. For instance, the flavor-changing neutral current decay

B_s^0 \to \mu^+ \mu^-

is highly suppressed in the SM, with a predicted branching fraction of approximately

(3.64 \pm 0.12) \times 10^{-9}

. Experimental measurements consistent with this value, such as those from LHCb, constrain extensions beyond the SM, while any significant discrepancy could indicate contributions from new particles or interactions.^[16] Conservation laws fundamentally shape branching fractions by forbidding certain decay modes, resulting in

B = 0

for violations of charge, lepton number, or baryon number. For example, pion decays respect these symmetries, prohibiting modes like

\pi^+ \to e^+ \nu_e \gamma

below detectable levels unless radiative corrections intervene. Additionally, CP violation influences mode probabilities in systems like neutral mesons, where interference between decay paths can asymmetrically alter branching fractions, as observed in

B

-meson decays and providing a window into matter-antimatter asymmetry.^[17]^[18]

Measurement and Determination

Branching fractions in particle physics are primarily determined through experimental techniques that involve counting the number of observed events in a specific decay channel and normalizing to the total number of produced parent particles, corrected for detection efficiencies and backgrounds. In collider experiments, such as those at electron-positron or proton-proton facilities, the total production rate is known from the integrated luminosity and the relevant cross-section, allowing for absolute measurements. For instance, the branching fraction

B_f

for a decay mode is calculated as

B_f = \frac{N_{\text{obs}}}{N_{\text{prod}} \cdot \epsilon}

, where

N_{\text{obs}}

is the number of observed signal events,

N_{\text{prod}}

is the total number of produced particles (often doubled for pair production like

B\bar{B}

), and

\epsilon

is the reconstruction efficiency determined from simulation or control samples.^[19]^[20] A key method in B-factory experiments, such as BaBar and Belle, utilizes tagged samples to enhance precision. These asymmetric

e^+e^-

colliders operate at the

\Upsilon(4S)

resonance, producing coherent

B^0\bar{B}^0

B^\pm B^\mp

pairs. One B meson is fully reconstructed in a "tag" mode (e.g., hadronic or semileptonic decay), confirming the presence of the partner B, which is then analyzed in the signal decay channel. This tagging reduces combinatorial backgrounds and allows measurement of the signal in the recoil system, with efficiencies typically around 1-10% depending on the mode. Similar tagging approaches are employed at LHCb for flavor-specific decays, using lepton or kaon tags to identify b-hadron events.^[21]^[22] Statistical analysis of these data relies on unbinned extended maximum-likelihood fits to extract the signal yield and thus the branching fraction. The likelihood function incorporates probability density functions (PDFs) for signal and background shapes in variables like invariant mass, decay time, or angular distributions, with backgrounds modeled from data-driven or simulated components. Efficiencies and systematic uncertainties, such as those from tracking resolution or PID, are propagated through the fit via nuisance parameters. For neutral B mesons, time-dependent measurements account for

B^0

\bar{B}^0

mixing; the decay rate varies with the time difference

\Delta t

between the two B decays, parameterized by the mixing frequency

\Delta m_d

and CP parameters, allowing extraction of flavor-specific or CP-averaged branching fractions from the time evolution.^[23]^[24] Challenges in these measurements are pronounced for rare decay modes with branching fractions below 1%, where signal events may number only a few dozen, leading to large statistical uncertainties dominated by Poisson fluctuations. Systematic errors arise from imperfect detector resolution, which broadens reconstructed invariant masses, and from modeling uncertainties in backgrounds or efficiencies, often contributing comparably to statistical errors. The Particle Data Group (PDG) compiles and averages these experimental results annually, performing global fits to resolve tensions and provide recommended values with uncertainties; for example, the 2025 PDG review on b-hadron decays integrates hundreds of measurements from multiple experiments.^[21]

Applications in Atomic and Nuclear Physics

Atomic State Transitions

In atomic physics, the branching fraction quantifies the probability that a particular excited electronic state will decay to a specific lower-lying state through spontaneous emission of a photon, with the sum of all possible branching fractions from that excited state equaling unity. This concept is central to understanding radiative decay processes in atoms, where the total decay rate is distributed among allowed transitions based on their relative strengths. Measurements of these fractions often involve time-resolved fluorescence or emission spectroscopy to determine the relative populations or intensities of decay channels.^[25] A representative example is the sodium D-line transitions, where atoms excited to the 3p state decay to the ground 3s state via two fine-structure components: the D2 line (3p_{3/2} \to 3s_{1/2} at 588.995 nm) and the D1 line (3p_{1/2} \to 3s_{1/2} at 589.593 nm). The relative branching fractions result in an intensity ratio of approximately 2:1 for D2 to D1 emissions, arising from the twofold higher degeneracy of the 3p_{3/2} level (2J+1 = 4) compared to the 3p_{1/2} level (2J+1 = 2), with nearly identical spontaneous emission rates of \Gamma \approx 61 \times 10^6 , \mathrm{s}^{-1} for both transitions. This ratio has been verified through detailed calculations of dipole matrix elements and experimental intensity measurements in sodium vapor.^[26]^[27] Branching fractions in atomic transitions are governed by fundamental selection rules, particularly the \Delta l = \pm 1 requirement for electric dipole (E1) transitions, which dictate the allowed lower states from a given excited orbital angular momentum l. Fine structure splitting, induced by spin-orbit coupling, further refines these pathways by separating levels with different total angular momentum J, altering the available decay channels and their strengths. Hyperfine interactions, due to coupling between the electron and nuclear spins, introduce additional small splittings and can modify branching ratios at high precision, especially in isotopes with nonzero nuclear spin like ^{23}Na (I=3/2). These factors ensure that only parity- and angular-momentum-conserving transitions contribute significantly to the observed fractions.^[28] Precise branching fractions are essential for applications in laser cooling, where they influence the efficiency of repeated absorption-emission cycles by determining the likelihood of returning to the desired ground state, minimizing "leaks" to metastable levels that require repumping lasers. In atomic clocks, such as those using alkali vapors or trapped ions, accurate

B

values enable optimal state preparation, reduce systematic errors from off-diagonal excitations, and support high-fidelity quantum state detection. Historically, branching fractions were determined through ratios of line intensities in emission spectra, with early quantitative work in the 1920s relying on photographic spectroscopy of arc and spark discharges to map relative transition strengths across atomic series.^[29]^[30]

Nuclear Decay Processes

In nuclear decay processes, the branching fraction quantifies the probability that an unstable atomic nucleus will decay through a specific mode, such as alpha emission, beta minus decay, beta plus decay, electron capture, gamma emission, or spontaneous fission, relative to all possible decay pathways. For heavy nuclei like those in the actinide series, these fractions determine the composition of decay chains and the resulting isotopic yields, influencing both natural and engineered systems. The total sum of branching fractions for all modes from a given nucleus is unity, reflecting the exhaustive partitioning of decay probabilities.^[31] A prominent example is the uranium-238 decay chain, where uranium-238 decays almost exclusively via alpha emission to thorium-234 with a branching fraction of approximately 100%, initiating a series of subsequent decays that ultimately lead to stable lead-206. The daughter thorium-234 then undergoes beta minus decay predominantly to the excited state of protactinium-234 (99.84%) with a minor branch (0.16%) to the ground state, illustrating how even small deviations from unity can affect chain branching and daughter production. These fractions are critical in tracing the chain's progression through eight alpha and six beta decays. The magnitudes of branching fractions are governed by nuclear structure factors, including Q-values (the available energy release for each decay mode), Coulomb barriers (which hinder charged particle emission like alpha decay), and shell effects (quantum mechanical stabilizations near magic numbers of protons or neutrons that favor certain pathways). For instance, higher Q-values enhance the competitiveness of a mode, while elevated Coulomb barriers suppress alpha decay relative to beta processes in neutron-rich nuclei. Experimentally, these fractions are determined using gamma-ray spectroscopy to identify emission lines and intensities from decay products, or mass spectrometry to measure isotopic ratios in decay chains, providing precise quantification of partial decay rates.^[32]^[33]^[34] Branching fractions play a pivotal role in geochronology, where methods like U-Pb dating depend on well-characterized decay chains of uranium isotopes to infer ages from lead accumulation, assuming negligible branching deviations that could alter parent-daughter ratios. In nuclear reactors, accurate knowledge of these fractions is essential for predicting fission product isotope yields and fuel cycle evolution, enabling simulations of neutron economy, waste generation, and transmutation processes in systems like pressurized water reactors.^[35]^[31]

Branching Ratios vs. Fractions

In particle physics and related fields, the terms branching ratio (BR) and branching fraction (BF) are often used interchangeably to denote the probability that a particle or excited state decays or transitions via a specific mode relative to all possible modes, defined as

\Gamma_f / \Gamma

, where

\Gamma_f

is the partial decay width to final state

f

and

\Gamma

is the total width.^[36] This synonymous usage reflects conventions in high-energy physics, as standardized by the Particle Data Group (PDG), which employs "branching fraction" for absolute probabilities but also refers to "branching ratios" in measurements.^[36] Historical origins trace to mid-20th century nuclear and particle physics, such as studies of kaon decays in the 1950s.^[37] Nuances appear in subfields. In atomic spectroscopy and quantum optics, "branching ratio" may describe relative transition rates from an excited state to specific lower states, sometimes without normalization to the total rate, aiding comparisons in techniques like laser-induced fluorescence.^[38] In nuclear physics, branching ratios often quantify competing decay modes like beta versus alpha emission.^[9] Additionally, "ratio of branching fractions" explicitly means the quotient of two such probabilities, e.g., for comparing rare versus common decays.

Partial Widths and Lifetimes

The total decay width

\Gamma

of an unstable particle is the sum of its partial decay widths

\Gamma_f

to all possible final states

f

, expressed as

\Gamma = \sum_f \Gamma_f

. The mean lifetime

\tau

of the particle is inversely proportional to the total width, given by

\tau = 1/\Gamma

in natural units where

\hbar = c = 1

. Thus, the branching fraction

B_f

to a specific final state

f

relates directly to these parameters via

B_f = \Gamma_f / \Gamma = \Gamma_f \tau

.^[39] This relationship highlights key physical implications: for short-lived particles with large total widths (and thus short

\tau

), the branching fractions determine the dominant decay modes and relative event yields, as the particle decays rapidly after production. In contrast, long-lived particles exhibit small widths and extended lifetimes, allowing even low-branching-fraction decays to contribute observably over greater distances or times.^[39] In quantum field theory, partial widths

\Gamma_f

are computed by evaluating the squared transition amplitude

| \mathcal{M} |^2

from the Feynman diagrams corresponding to the decay process into final state

f

, followed by integration over the phase space and summation over polarization and color degrees of freedom for the final particles.^[40] For resonantly produced particles, the effective branching fraction can incorporate quantum interference effects between decay channels. A prominent example is the Z boson's total width decomposition into partial widths to fermion-antifermion pairs, such as

\Gamma(Z \to \ell^+ \ell^-) \approx 84

MeV for charged leptons and

\Gamma(Z \to q \bar{q})

for quarks, summing to the measured

\Gamma_Z \approx 2.5

GeV; these contributions influence the resonant lineshape and extraction of electroweak parameters through interference in

e^+ e^-

collisions.^[41] Branching fractions play a practical role in predicting event rates at particle accelerators, where the expected number of observed events

N_f

for a decay mode

f

N_f = B_f \times \sigma \times \mathcal{L}

, with

\sigma

denoting the production cross-section and

\mathcal{L}

the integrated luminosity of the experiment.

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Branching fraction

Definition and Fundamentals

Definition

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Role in Particle Decays

Measurement and Determination

Applications in Atomic and Nuclear Physics

Atomic State Transitions

Nuclear Decay Processes

Branching Ratios vs. Fractions

Partial Widths and Lifetimes

References

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