Hubbry Logo
CallaCallaMain
Open search
Calla
Community hub
Calla
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Calla
Calla
Calla
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia
For other uses, see Calla (disambiguation).

Calla
Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz 1885
Secure
Secure  (NatureServe)[1]
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Order: Alismatales
Family: Araceae
Subfamily: Aroideae
Tribe: Calleae
Bartl.
Genus: Calla
L.
Species:
C. palustris
Binomial name
Calla palustris
L.
Synonyms

Of the genus:[3]

  • Aroides Heist. ex Fabr.
  • Callaion Raf.
  • Callaria Raf.
  • Provenzalia Adans.

Of the species:[4]

List
  • Calla brevis (Raf.) Á.Löve & D.Löve
  • Calla cordifolia Stokes
  • Calla generalis E.H.L.Krause
  • Calla ovatifolia Gilib.
  • Callaion bispatha (Raf.) Raf.
  • Callaion brevis (Raf.) Raf.
  • Callaion heterophylla (Raf.) Raf.
  • Callaion palustris (L.) Raf.
  • Dracunculus paludosus Montandon
  • Provenzalia bispatha Raf.
  • Provenzalia brevis Raf.
  • Provenzalia heterophyla Raf.
  • Provenzalia palustris (L.) Raf.

Calla is a genus of flowering plant in the family Araceae, containing the single species Calla palustris (bog arum, marsh calla, wild calla, squaw claw, and water-arum[5]). It is the only genus in the tribe Calleae of the subfamily Aroideae. Its systematic position has been described as "puzzling",[6] and it has also been placed in its own family Callaceae and its own subfamily Calloideae.

Description

[edit]

It is a rhizomatous herbaceous perennial plant growing in bogs and ponds. The leaves are rounded to heart-shaped, 6–12 cm (2+1⁄4–4+3⁄4 in) long on a 10–20 cm (4–8 in) petiole, and 4–12 cm (1+1⁄2–4+3⁄4 in) broad. The greenish-yellow inflorescence is produced on a spadix about 4–6 cm (1+1⁄2–2+1⁄4 in) long, enclosed in a white spathe. The fruit is a cluster of red berries, each berry containing several seeds.[7][8]

The plant is very poisonous when fresh due to its high oxalic acid content, but the rhizome (like that of Caladium, Colocasia, and Arum) is edible after drying, grinding, leaching and boiling.[9][10]

Taxonomy

[edit]

The genus Calla and its sole species Calla palustris were first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753.[3] The genus formerly also included a number of other species, which have now been transferred to the separate genus Zantedeschia. These plants from tropical Africa, however, are still often termed "calla lilies" but should not be confused with C. palustris.[11]

The genus Calla has been regarded as a "puzzling case" in relation to its systematic position. Its pollen is unusual within the family Araceae. The pollen grains are small, ornamented differently, and with a differently constructed exine. Treatments based on anatomy and morphology have tended to separate Calla from other aroids.[6] It has been placed in its own family, Callaceae,[12] or in its own subfamily Calloideae within the Araceae.[6] (In the Engler system, Calloideae had included the genera now placed in Orontioideae.[13]) Molecular phylogenetic studies on the other hand place Calla within the subfamily Aroideae,[6] where it may be given its own tribe Calleae.[12]

Distribution

[edit]

It is native to cool temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, in central, eastern and northern Europe (France and Norway eastward, but not Britain), northern Asia and northern North America (Alaska, Canada, and northeastern contiguous United States).[3][14]

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Calla

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Calla is a of flowering plants in the family , comprising the single species Calla palustris, a rhizomatous known for its glossy, heart-shaped leaves and distinctive featuring a white spathe enclosing a yellow-green spadix. Native to temperate wetlands across the , including , , and , it typically grows in bogs, marshes, swamps, and shallow waters, forming dense patches from creeping rhizomes. The plant emerges in spring with basal leaves on long petioles, reaching heights of 6–12 inches, and blooms from late spring to summer, producing showy spathes 3–8 cm long that attract pollinators such as syrphid flies. In late summer, the infructescence develops into clusters of bright red, berry-like fruits containing cylindric seeds, which provide food for waterfowl and aquatic wildlife. C. palustris prefers acidic, humus-rich soils in partial shade and is hardy in USDA zones 2–6, making it suitable for bog gardens, rain gardens, and aquatic marginal plantings. However, it contains calcium oxalate crystals, rendering it toxic if ingested raw, though historical Native American uses included medicinal applications for snakebites and swelling after proper preparation. The genus name Calla, derived from the Greek kallos meaning "beauty," was first used by , while the specific epithet palustris refers to its marshy habitat. Taxonomically, Calla is the sole member of the tribe Calleae and is distinct from the ornamental "calla lilies" of the genus (also in ), which are tropical South African natives with larger spathes and are not true lilies. This confusion arises from common naming, but species, such as Z. aethiopica, feature narrower spadices and greater stature compared to the more compact C. palustris.

Description

Morphology

Calla palustris is a rhizomatous herbaceous perennial that typically grows to a height and width of about 0.3 m. It emerges from a horizontal, creeping rhizome that measures 1–3 cm in diameter and produces offsets through branching, allowing vegetative spread. The leaves are basal, arising directly from the rhizome, and are rounded to heart-shaped (cordate) with a lustrous green surface, measuring 4–14 cm long and 4–14 cm broad. They are borne on petioles 6–40 cm long, and in mild climates, the foliage can be semi-evergreen, persisting partially through winter. The flowering stem is an erect, leafless scape (peduncle) up to 30 cm tall and 0.8–1.2 cm wide. The inflorescence consists of a spadix, 1.5–3 cm long and 0.7–1.5 cm wide, that is greenish-yellow and densely covered in tiny, perfect flowers, each about 2–2.5 mm tall. This spadix is enclosed by a leaf-like, boat-shaped spathe that is white on the inner surface and green outside, measuring 3–8 cm long and 3–5 cm wide; the spathe's appearance bears superficial similarity to that of Zantedeschia species, which are commonly misnamed "calla lilies." Following pollination, the plant produces a globose cluster of red, pear-shaped berries, each 5–12 mm in diameter and containing multiple seeds, which ripen in late summer.

Reproduction

Calla palustris exhibits a reproductive strategy adapted to its environments, combining through with asexual via rhizomes. The plant is a that persists through an extensive rhizomatous , allowing for both clonal expansion and when conditions favor seed production. Flowering occurs from May to , varying with and local climate, typically producing one or two per shoot during this period. The consists of a central spadix surrounded by a protective and pollinator-attracting spathe; the spadix bears numerous small, spirally arranged bisexual flowers. Following , the spadix develops into a cluster of that mature from green to bright red, enhancing visibility in shaded habitats; each , measuring about 0.5 inches in , contains 1 to several seeds embedded in gelatinous tissue. completes the life cycle through seed germination, which requires a period of wet cold stratification at around 4°C (typically 90–140 days) to overcome physiological , after which seeds germinate over a broad range of 10–30°C under light exposure. Asexual reproduction occurs via division of the creeping rhizomes, which produce clonal offsets that establish new shoots, enabling rapid formation in suitable habitats without reliance on .

Taxonomy

Etymology

The genus name Calla originates from the Latin term calla, which was used by the Roman author in his Naturalis Historia (circa 77 AD) to refer to an arum-like plant, possibly derived from the Greek word kallos meaning "beauty," alluding to the attractive white spathe of the flower. The species epithet palustris is Latin for "of the " or "swamp-dwelling," directly reflecting the plant's preference for habitats. Calla palustris was first formally described by in his in 1753, though the genus name itself predates this classification and traces back to ancient references to similar arum plants in classical texts. Common names for the plant include water arum, wild calla, and bog arum, which emphasize its aquatic environment. The term "calla" has often led to confusion with the unrelated genus (commonly called calla lilies). The confusion arose because Linnaeus included the South African plant as Calla aethiopica in 1753, but it was later separated by Kurt Sprengel, who created the genus in 1826.

Classification and Species

Calla belongs to the family (aroids), within the order and the monocot clade. It is placed in the subfamily and Calleae, of which Calla is the sole . The is monotypic, comprising only the species Calla palustris L. (1753), with no recognized . Phylogenetically, Calla holds a basal position within , having diverged early from other aroids as supported by molecular studies. DNA analyses have confirmed its distinct separation from , to which certain species were historically assigned; these were reclassified into the by Kurt Sprengel in 1826. Historically, the genus Calla originally encompassed multiple species, but taxonomic revisions in the , informed by morphological and later molecular data, restricted it to the single extant species C. palustris.

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

Calla palustris exhibits a circumboreal distribution across the cool temperate zones of the , characteristic of many boreal species that underwent post-glacial migrations from refugia following the last . In , the species is native to northern and central regions, ranging from and eastward through , , and the to , , , and , including and ; it is absent from . In northern Asia, it occurs natively from (including regions like Altay, , Buryatiya, , , , and Yakutiya) eastward to , Korea, and the (Kamchatka, , Primorye, , and ). In , the native range spans and much of (from and to , including all provinces eastward), extending southward into the northeastern and north-central as far as , , , , , , and . The plant is particularly common in and the , where it thrives in suitable environments. Beyond its native range, Calla palustris has been introduced and sporadically naturalized in and , often as escapes from cultivation. It also appears as rare escapes or questionable records in other areas, such as parts of outside its core native distribution and isolated sites in , though some reports may involve misidentification with related species. The species does not establish in warmer climates, limiting its introduced presence to cooler temperate zones.

Environmental Preferences

Calla palustris inhabits shallow water bodies including bogs, , marshes, margins, and slow-moving streams, where it occupies wet to submerged conditions. The species prefers acidic, humus-rich, muddy soils with a typically below 6.0, characteristic of peaty substrates. Adapted to cool temperate climates across its northern distribution, C. palustris tolerates USDA hardiness zones 2–6 and demonstrates frost hardiness to approximately -40°C in zone 3 conditions, while requiring high humidity and consistent moisture without tolerance for drought. It flourishes in partial shade to medium shade, leaning toward deeper shade in southern parts of its range, though it can endure full sun farther north; ideal water depths range from 5–15 cm over the crown in oligotrophic to mesotrophic waters, with intolerance to nutrient pollution that could lead to eutrophication. Commonly associated with Sphagnum moss, sedges (Carex spp.), and aquatic plants such as Nymphaea spp., it contributes to the of these acidic communities.

Ecology

Pollination and Dispersal

Calla palustris displays protogynous dichogamy in its bisexual flowers, with the stigma receptive prior to anther dehiscence, which favors while allowing for if cross- are absent. Primary is mediated by small dipteran , including () and chironomid midges, which visit the for presumed rewards or ; beetles (e.g., Chrysomelidae, Nitidulidae), syrphid flies, and snails may also contribute. serves as a secondary vector, particularly in sparse populations. Flowering within populations is often synchronous, enhancing pollinator visitation efficiency across multiple inflorescences. Seed dispersal in C. palustris occurs primarily through hydrochory, with buoyant berries floating on water surfaces for weeks to months, enabling local spread along wetlands and streams. Waterfowl and other birds consume the bright red berries, passing viable through their digestive tracts via endozoochory, which facilitates longer-distance dispersal beyond immediate hydrological connections. Vegetative dispersal via rhizome fragments, detached by water flow or disturbance, further contributes to clonal expansion in suitable habitats. Seeds exhibit physiological , requiring cold, moist stratification over winter to break, after which is good under saturated, cool conditions mimicking boreal wetlands. Dispersal is typically via hydrochory, with bird-mediated endozoochory enabling longer-distance transport. The open spathe and compact spadix briefly retain small pollinators, aiding transfer without specialized trapping mechanisms.

Ecological Interactions

Calla palustris plays a key role in food webs as both a primary producer and a food source for herbivores and omnivores. Its rhizomes and leaves are grazed by muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus), which consume the plant as part of their diet in aquatic habitats. Berries are eaten by waterfowl such as mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) and ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus), aiding in while providing nutritional value during . Seeds are subject to predation by , contributing to population regulation within the . The plant may form symbiotic associations with mycorrhizal fungi, enhancing nutrient uptake in nutrient-poor, low-oxygen wetland soils where root hairs alone may be insufficient. These associations facilitate and other mineral acquisition, supporting growth in anaerobic conditions typical of bogs and marshes. Additionally, Calla palustris provides habitat structure for aquatic , including beetles like Ilybius spp. (Coleoptera: ), which lay eggs on or near its leaves and stems, thereby supporting communities in shallow waters. As an indicator species, Calla palustris signals acidic, undisturbed wetlands with nutrient-poor conditions, thriving in pH ranges of 4.5–7.5 and saturated soils. It is sensitive to from excess and inputs, which favor competitive invasives and reduce its abundance, and to drainage that alters and exposes to . Its presence or decline thus reflects wetland integrity and anthropogenic disturbance levels. In terms of competition, Calla palustris interacts with aggressive aquatic species like , which can invade and dominate shared spaces, potentially displacing it through shading and resource monopolization. However, it benefits from the acidic conditions created by mosses, which inhibit competitors and maintain suitable microhabitats in peatlands. Regarding broader biodiversity contributions, the plant stabilizes sediments with its extensive systems, preventing in dynamic environments, and oxygenates surrounding water and sediments via tissues in , promoting aerobic in anoxic zones. In peatland ecosystems, it aids by contributing to accumulation and peat formation.

Cultivation and Uses

Growing Requirements

Calla palustris thrives in aquatic or boggy environments that mimic its natural habitats, such as shallow ponds, bog gardens, or containers with standing water 5–15 cm deep. The ideal is acidic (pH 5–6), humus-rich in , and lime-free to maintain suitable conditions. This plant is hardy in USDA zones 2–6, tolerating cold winters but requiring protection from extreme heat above 30°C, which can cause sunburn or stress. In colder areas within its range, apply a light over the crowns in late fall to insulate against . Partial shade, providing 2–6 hours of direct daily, supports healthy growth, while constant moisture is essential—ensure the or never dries out. Fertilize sparingly in spring with a low-nitrogen aquatic formula to avoid promoting algal growth or root issues. For soil preparation, combine equal parts peat moss for acidity, sand for texture, and loam for nutrient retention, planting rhizomes just below the surface in baskets or directly in mud. Avoid adding lime or alkaline amendments, as they can disrupt the plant's preference for acidic conditions. Common pests include slugs and , which can be managed with organic barriers or , while over-fertilization may lead to from excess nutrients in wet conditions. Overall, Calla palustris experiences few serious diseases in properly maintained sites.

Propagation and Ornamental Value

Calla palustris is primarily propagated through division of its or by , with division being the more reliable method for established plants. Rhizome division is best performed in , when each section should include one to three lateral buds to ensure successful rooting; this approach allows for quicker establishment compared to seeds, and divisions can be replanted in moist, acidic muck or aquatic soil mixes just below the surface. Seed propagation requires an initial warm period at 20–22°C for 2–4 weeks in muddy , followed by cold moist stratification for 4–6 weeks at 0–5°C to break , then on a surface of fine grit or muddy at 15–20°C, where typically occurs within 4–6 weeks under bright, indirect light; however, seedlings are slow to establish, often taking 3–4 years to reach flowering maturity. As an , Calla palustris is valued for its elegant white spathes that emerge from May to , providing a striking contrast against its glossy, heart-shaped green foliage and the vibrant red berries that follow in late summer to fall. It is particularly suited for planting in water features such as , bog gardens, rain gardens, and margins, where it can be naturalized to create a naturalistic, low-growing border that enhances aesthetics without requiring ongoing intervention once established. It can form dense patches via rhizomes in suitable conditions. The species has no named cultivars, with the wild form preferred for its authentic appearance and adaptation to native conditions, though rare natural variants like those with multiple spathes per have been noted but not commercially developed. Historical records indicate that Calla palustris has been incorporated into European water gardens since at least the early , building on its native presence across the continent for ornamental plantings in and marginal aquatic settings, where its low-maintenance nature—requiring only consistent moisture and partial shade—makes it enduringly popular. Despite these benefits, challenges include the plant's slow establishment from seed, which can delay integration into landscapes.

Toxicity and Conservation

Toxicity

All parts of Calla palustris, including the leaves, stems, rhizomes, spathe, and berries, contain crystals known as , which are particularly concentrated in the rhizomes and spathe. These needle-like crystals are bundled in specialized cells called idioblasts and serve as a defense mechanism against herbivores. Ingestion of any plant part by humans causes immediate oral irritation due to the mechanical action of the piercing soft tissues, leading to burning sensations, swelling of the lips, mouth, tongue, and , excessive salivation, and . In severe cases involving large quantities, symptoms may progress to difficulty swallowing or speaking from throat constriction and, rarely, oxalate-induced kidney damage through . Skin contact with the plant's sap can result in irritant , characterized by redness, itching, or blistering, especially upon exposure to . The plant is poisonous to such as , which typically avoid it due to its acrid taste, and to pets including dogs and cats, producing similar gastrointestinal and oral discomfort upon ingestion. The berries attract waterfowl and aquatic wildlife. There is no specific for C. palustris poisoning; treatment involves rinsing the thoroughly with or to remove crystals, administering symptomatic care such as medications or fluids for , and seeking immediate medical or veterinary attention in severe cases.

Conservation Status

Calla palustris is ranked as Secure (G5) by NatureServe, reflecting abundant occurrences and broad habitat availability in wetlands and bogs across its circumboreal distribution, with the global status last reviewed on July 12, 2024. In , it is ranked Secure (N5) in and most U.S. states. Regionally, the species faces greater threats in parts of , where it is classified as Vulnerable in owing to and drainage in peatlands. In the , non-native populations are limited and susceptible to decline from similar pressures. Overall, threats include drainage, , and competition with . Population trends are stable at a global scale, supported by resilient occurrences in remote northern s, but local extirpations have occurred due to habitat loss from activities such as peat extraction. Monitoring efforts in protected Ramsar sites help track these dynamics, particularly in areas prone to hydrological changes. The species receives protection through national listings and benefits from broader frameworks like the EU Habitats Directive. Management strategies include restoration projects involving reintroduction into degraded bogs, as demonstrated by successful population recoveries in France's Mountains. Ongoing research examines climate change impacts, including potential northward range shifts in response to warming temperatures and altered precipitation patterns.

References

  1. https://floranorthamerica.org/Calla_palustris
  2. https://plants.usda.gov/plant-profile/capa
  3. https://gobotany.nativeplanttrust.org/species/calla/palustris/
  4. https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=276335
  5. https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/calla-palustris/
  6. https://www.wildflower.org/plants/result.php?id_plant=CAPA
  7. https://accs.uaa.alaska.edu/wp-content/uploads/Introduction_to_Common_Native_and_Invasive_Freshwater_Plants_Alaska.pdf
  8. https://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-0000767370
  9. https://ohiodnr.gov/discover-and-learn/plants-trees/flowering-plants/wild-calla
  10. https://dutchmasternurseries.com/wp-content/uploads/products/2018/Dutchmaster-Products-2018-Marsh-And-Bog-Plants.pdf
  11. https://harvardforest.fas.harvard.edu/publications/pdfs/Scribailo_InternationalJrnlPlantScience_1992.pdf
  12. https://www.paenflowered.org/apgii/alismatales/araceae/calla/calla-palustris
  13. https://www.britannica.com/plant/water-arum
  14. https://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Plants/wild_calla.html
  15. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/wetland/plants/wild_calla.html
  16. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323122899_Ecology_of_seed_germination_and_features_of_ontogeny_of_floating_mat-forming_hygrogelophyte_Calla_palustris_Araceae_under_laboratory_conditions
  17. https://nanps.org/product/calla-palustris/
  18. https://www.aroid.org/gallery/gibernau/aroideana/0220003.pdf
  19. http://floranorthamerica.org/Calla
  20. https://treatment.plazi.org/id/60F3ECCE-E53C-0F10-64BE-EB68053494FB
  21. http://floranorthamerica.org/Calla_palustris
  22. https://pza.sanbi.org/zantedeschia
  23. https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:86508-1
  24. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1055790314000682
  25. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274262145_Calla_palustris_Araceae_New_palynological_insights_with_special_regard_to_its_controversial_systematic_position_and_to_closely_related_genera
  26. https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.130791/Calla_palustris
  27. https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/60460-Calla-palustris
  28. https://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/wild-calla
  29. https://www.gardenia.net/plant/calla-palustris
  30. https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Calla%20palustris
  31. https://www.watergardenplants.co.uk/products/calla-palustris
  32. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Esther-Chet-Lucassen/publication/299889242_Biogeochemical_constraints_for_restoration_of_sulphate-rich_fens_black_alder_carrs/links/5706ae0608aeda83af5379a7/Biogeochemical-constraints-for-restoration-of-sulphate-rich-fens-black-alder-carrs.pdf
  33. https://www.pnwherbaria.org/data/results.php?DisplayAs=WebPage&ExcludeCultivated=Y&GroupBy=ungrouped&SortBy=ScientificName&SearchAllHerbaria=Y&QueryCount=1&Genus1=Calla&Species1=palustris&Zoom=4&Lat=55&Lng=-135&PolygonCount=0
  34. https://www.leapbio.org/content/6-resources/habitats-of-the-leap-region/habitats-of-the-leap-region.pdf
  35. https://hal.science/hal-02998884/document
  36. https://search-test.museums.ualberta.ca/g/1-3010/12-1514
  37. https://luontoportti.com/en/t/371
  38. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331717396_A_Review_on_the_Pollination_of_Aroids_with_Bisexual_Flowers
  39. https://www.uvm.edu/~dbarring/241/241_PUBS/chartier2014.pdf
  40. https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2745.12250
  41. https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.07.29.226910v1.full.pdf
  42. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10750-012-1022-3
  43. https://victoria-adventure.com/aquatic_plants/seed_storage_germination_muenscher.htm
  44. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5608078/
  45. https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1139/z90-172
  46. http://www.sekj.org/PDF/anzf15/anzf15-177-181.pdf
  47. https://lrl.mn.gov/docs/2010/mandated/101838/1991_06e.pdf
  48. https://mycorrhizae.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Mycorrhizal-Status-of-Families-and-Genera-v1.6.pdf
  49. https://aes.bioflux.com.ro/docs/2009.2.89-97.pdf
  50. https://www.wisconsinlpr.com/plants/water-arum/
  51. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351361591_Distribution_ecology_and_vegetation_affinity_of_bog_arum_Calla_palustris_in_Slovakia
  52. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4096652
  53. https://www.greatlakesphragmites.net/phragbasics/impacts/
  54. https://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/communities/description/10666/bog
  55. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4247026/
  56. https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/23425/calla-palustris/details
  57. https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Calla+palustris
  58. https://courses.washington.edu/esrm412/protocols/2022/CAPA.pdf
  59. https://tomclothier.hort.net/page02.html
  60. https://www.pei-untamed.com/post/water-arum
  61. https://www.eattheweeds.com/calla-palustris-missen-famine-bread-2/
  62. https://austinbotany.wordpress.com/2014/04/11/calla-palustris-calla-lily-water-arum/
  63. https://www.ivis.org/library/guide-to-plant-poisoning-of-animals-north-america/plants-causing-kidney-failure
  64. https://www.gardenersworld.com/how-to/grow-plants/plants-with-irritant-sap/
  65. https://www.botanical-dermatology-database.info/BotDermFolder/ARACEAE.html
  66. https://wagwalking.com/condition/wild-calla-poisoning
  67. https://www.dvm360.com/view/toxicology-plants-proceedings
  68. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11756-021-00779-w
  69. https://www.persee.fr/doc/revec_0249-7395_2009_num_64_2_1474
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.