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Caladium
Caladium schomburgkii
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Order: Alismatales
Family: Araceae
Subfamily: Aroideae
Tribe: Caladieae
Genus: Caladium
Vent. (1800), nom. cons.
Species[1]

19; see text

Range of the genus Caladium
Synonyms[1]

Aphyllarum S.Moore (1895)

Caladium (/kəˈleɪdiəm/)[2] is a genus of flowering plants in the family Araceae. They are often known by the common name elephant ear (which they share with the closely related genera Alocasia, Colocasia, and Xanthosoma), heart of Jesus,[3] and angel wings. There are over 1000 named cultivars of Caladium bicolor from the original South American plant.[4]

The genus Caladium includes seven species that are native to South America and Central America, and naturalized in India, parts of Africa, and various tropical islands.[5] They grow in open areas of the forest and on the banks of rivers and go dormant during the dry season. The wild plants grow to 15–35 inches (40–90 cm) tall, with leaves mostly 6-18 inches (15–45 cm) long and broad.[6][7]

Name

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From Malay Keladi, which refers to a few genera within the Araceae family (Alocasia, Caladium and Dieffenbachia). However, it may just specifically refer to the Colocasia genus.

Species

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Many names have been proposed for species and varieties in the genus, but the vast majority of the names have either been transferred to other genera or regarded as synonyms of other names. The following are accepted.[1]

  1. Caladium amazonicum E.G.Gonç. – Pará state northern Brazil
  2. Caladium andreanum Bogner - Colombia
  3. Caladium bicolor (Aiton) Vent. - widespread from Costa Rica to northern Argentina; naturalized in India, Bangladesh, western and central Africa, and various islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans and in the Caribbean
  4. Caladium clavatum Hett., Bogner & J.Boos - Napo region of Ecuador
  5. Caladium coerulescens G.S.Bunting - Venezuela
  6. Caladium cortesiae Croat & E.G.Gonç. – Colombia
  7. Caladium humboldtii (Raf.) Schott - Guyana, Amazonas State of southern Venezuela, Amazonas State of western Brazil, Loreto region of eastern Peru
  8. Caladium intermedium E.G.Gonç. – Tocantins state of northern Brazil
  9. Caladium macrotites Schott - Colombia, Venezuela, northwestern Brazil
  10. Caladium palaciosii Croat & L.P.Hannon – Ecuador and Peru
  11. Caladium picturatum K.Koch & C.D.Bouché - Venezuela, northwestern Brazil
  12. Caladium praetermissum Bogner & Hett. - range unknown
  13. Caladium schomburgkii Schott - Venezuela, northwestern Brazil, the Guianas
  14. Caladium smaragdinum K.Koch & C.D.Bouché - Venezuela
  15. Caladium steudnerifolium Engl. – western South America (Colombia to Bolivia)
  16. Caladium stevensonii Croat & Delannay – Colombia
  17. Caladium steyermarkii G.S.Bunting - Venezuela
  18. Caladium ternatum Madison - Colombia, Amazonas State of western Brazil
  19. Caladium tuberosum (S.Moore) Bogner & Mayo - Mato Grosso

Formerly placed here

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Cultivation and uses

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See also: List of Caladium cultivars

Several species are grown as ornamental plants for their large, arrowhead-shaped leaves marked in varying patterns in white, pink, and red (somewhat resembling the unrelated coleus) and have been in cultivation in Europe since the late 18th century. The two forms most widely cultivated are called "fancy-leaved" and "lance-leaved". The former is the more commonly seen and is the traditional caladium of cultivation; the leaves are more heart-shaped. The latter has more lance-head-shaped leaves. Most Caladiums in cultivation grow to about 24 inches (60 cm) high and 24 inches (60 cm) wide, although dwarf varieties are now in cultivation.

Numerous cultivars have been selected, most of them derived from C. bicolor. Many are sold as C. × hortulanem, a synonym for C. bicolor.[8][9] The lance-leaved varieties are also derived from C. schomburgkii.

Caladiums grow from tubers and can be propagated by dividing the tubers. They are hardy only to USDA plant hardiness zone 10; in colder areas, they are typically grown as tender "bulbs" or as houseplants.

During their growing season, they require moderate watering (damp, not soggy). Most varieties prefer partial to full shade, although sun-resistant varieties are now in cultivation. Approximately 98% of all caladium "bulbs"[where?] are from Lake Placid, Florida, in the United States.[citation needed] In recent years, many new varieties have become available through breeding and are now largely disease resistant. The bulk of "bulb" production is sold to pot producers, who in turn provide local nursery outlets with potted caladiums ready for immediate planting. Most "bulb" growers also sell direct retail via websites, shipping of "bulbs" takes place in the spring when temperatures permit ("bulbs" are subject to damage if temperatures are too low).

In temperate areas, they should be lifted before the first frost. The tubers are dried and stored for the winter when temperatures fall to 65 °F (18 °C), and stored moderately dry (not bone-dry) over the winter at temperatures between 56 °F (13 °C) and 61 °F (16 °C).

All parts of the plant are poisonous. They should not be ingested and may irritate sensitive skin.

Public displays

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An annual festival is held during the last weekend of July in Lake Placid, Florida, home to a majority of the world's caladium fields. A popular activity is a tour of the fields of caladiums, the product of local growers. Every July since 2003, Gaylord Palms Resort & Convention Center in Kissimmee, Florida, has presented the Florida Caladium Showcase,a large indoor and outdoor display of the plants, including new varieties. In addition, Classic Caladiums of Avon Park, FL, holds an annual early September Open House caladium garden of over 2 acres in addition to farm tours. Many universities feature caladiums at field trials, you may also find displays at arboretums and many public gardens.

Caladiums are tubers, not corms or bulbs. A corm is a compressed mass of stem tissue with a basal plate (root tissue) at the bottom and one or more "eyes" on top from which vegetative growth and flowers will appear. A tuber is stem tissue with various eyes which may grow vegetative growth or roots.

Caladium drooping

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They prefer a moderate shady place with indirect sunlight, high humidity, and a well-structured watering schedule.[citation needed]

Caladium is a tropical plant native to the tropical Americas. It is intolerant to low temperature or prolonged absence of water. After a while without water, Caladium leaves will go dormant and droop.[10]

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  • Caladium with white leaf and green veins at Courtallam
    Caladium with white leaf and green veins at Courtallam
  • Plant canopy (Caladium bicolor 'Florida Sweetheart')
    Plant canopy (Caladium bicolor 'Florida Sweetheart')
  • Leaf closeup (Caladium bicolor 'Florida Sweetheart')
    Leaf closeup (Caladium bicolor 'Florida Sweetheart')
  • Caladium bicolor 'Florida Red Ruffles'
    Caladium bicolor 'Florida Red Ruffles'
  • Caladium Fannie Munson
    Caladium Fannie Munson
  • Bedding of Caladium Florida Sweetheart
    Bedding of Caladium Florida Sweetheart

References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Caladium

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Caladium is a of tuberous herbaceous perennial plants in the family , comprising 19 accepted species native to the tropical regions of Central and . These plants are renowned for their striking, heart- or arrowhead-shaped leaves, which feature vibrant multicolored patterns in shades of green, white, pink, red, and rose, often with prominent veins and spots, making them popular ornamentals grown primarily for their foliage rather than flowers. Native to humid forest understories, Caladium species thrive in warm, moist environments and are typically cultivated as summer annuals in temperate climates or as houseplants, with Caladium bicolor serving as the primary species for the thousands of named cultivars available today. The is characterized by its lack of above-ground stems, with leaves emerging directly from underground tubers on long petioles, reaching heights of 12 to 30 inches depending on the variety—such as the broader "fancy-leaved" types or narrower "strap-leaved" forms. Flowers, when produced, are inconspicuous arum-type inflorescences with greenish-white spathes, but they rarely appear in cultivation due to the emphasis on leaf display. Distribution spans from and southward to , , and , where the plants grow as geophytes in wet tropical biomes, often naturalized in other tropical areas through human introduction. In , Caladium requires partial shade, consistently moist but well-drained acidic soil, and temperatures above 70°F (21°C) for optimal growth, with tubers planted 1.5 to 2 inches deep in spring after the last frost. They are hardy only in USDA zones 9 to 10 but can be overwintered by digging and storing in a dry, cool (above 45°F or 7°C) location. Common pests include and spider mites, while diseases like tuber rot can occur from overwatering; regular fertilization supports their lush foliage. All parts of Caladium plants contain insoluble crystals, rendering them toxic if ingested, causing oral , swelling, , and potential airway obstruction in severe cases for humans and pets. Handling may also irritate sensitive , so gloves are recommended during planting and care. Despite these risks, their aesthetic appeal has led to widespread use in landscapes, containers, and indoor settings, with over 1,000 cultivars bred for diverse leaf patterns and colors.

Taxonomy

Etymology

The genus name Caladium derives from the Malay word keladi, referring to aroid plants (family ) with edible corms or tubers, such as Colocasia esculenta. This term was Latinized to form the , reflecting the plant's tuberous nature and cultural significance in regions where such plants are staples. The name was first validly published in 1800 by Étienne Pierre Ventenat in the Magazin Encyclopédique. It is pronounced /kəˈleɪdiəm/. The genus shares common names like "elephant ear" with related genera due to similar large, broad leaves.

Accepted species

The genus Caladium comprises 19 accepted species according to (POWO), a database maintained by Botanic Gardens, , which integrates the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (WCSP). This count reflects recent taxonomic revisions and exceeds older estimates of around 7 species, though some authorities recognize fewer due to ongoing debates over species boundaries. All accepted species are tuberous geophytes native to tropical regions of Central and , typically featuring peltate or sagittate leaves with varying degrees of . Representative accepted species include Caladium bicolor (Aiton) Vent., the type species of the genus, which is widespread from to northern . It is characterized by heart-shaped to lanceolate peltate leaves reaching up to 30 cm in length and 20 cm wide, often displaying striking with green blades accented by white, pink, or red veins, blotches, and margins. Another key species is Caladium schomburgkii Schott, endemic to northern , including , , and northern . It features dark green, lanceolate to sagittate leaves with prominent silvery-white veins forming an intricate, web-like pattern, distinguishing it from more boldly colored congeners. Caladium amazonicum E.G.Gonç. represents Amazonian endemics, restricted to the state of in . This species has ovate peltate leaves with subtle green coloration and is adapted to wet tropical forest understories, highlighting the genus's diversity in leaf morphology within the .

Synonymy and former classifications

The genus Caladium was established by Étienne Pierre Ventenat in 1800, based on species from the family native to tropical America. Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, the genus encompassed a broad array of aroid species, many of which were later reclassified due to refined morphological analyses and the advent of . The first comprehensive family-wide molecular phylogeny of , published in 1995, highlighted the need for taxonomic revisions by revealing polyphyletic groupings within genera like Caladium, leading to the transfer of numerous species to more appropriate genera in the 1990s and beyond. Several species formerly placed in Caladium have been reclassified based on differences in inflorescence structure, pollen characteristics, and DNA sequence data. For example, Caladium colocasia Schott ex Wight is now accepted as Alocasia cucullata (Lour.) G.Don, reflecting its closer affinity to the Alocasia clade within Aroideae. Similarly, Caladium acuminatum F. Dietr. has been transferred to Xanthosoma belophyllum (Willd.) Kunth, distinguished by tetrad pollen grains and peltate leaves typical of Xanthosoma. Other notable transfers include Caladium auritum (L.) Vent. to Syngonium auritum (L.) Schott and Caladium esculentum (L.) Vent. to Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott, driven by phylogenetic studies confirming their positions in distinct lineages. Within the currently accepted species, synonymy has also been revised over time. For the type species Caladium bicolor (Aiton) Vent., the basionym is Arum bicolor Aiton (1789), with additional synonyms including Caladiopsis bicolor (Aiton) Klotzsch and the cultivar group name Caladium × hortulanum Birdsey. Early 20th-century classifications lumped variants under C. bicolor, but Michael Madison's 1981 revision recognized six species while synonymizing others; subsequent work by Croat and Delannoy in 2019 resurrected C. picturatum K.Koch & C.D.Bouché and C. steudnerifolium Engl. from C. bicolor synonymy based on leaf venation and inflorescence morphology. These adjustments underscore the ongoing refinement of Caladium boundaries through integrated morphological and molecular evidence.

Description

Morphology

Caladium species are tuberous herbaceous perennials in the family , typically growing to heights of 15–60 cm, with a clumping habit that arises from underground . The plants exhibit a growth pattern in response to seasonal , where aboveground vegetation dies back, leaving the persistent for regrowth. The tubers are subterranean, rounded to depressed-globose structures, 1.5–4 cm in diameter, starchy, and serve as the primary storage organs for nutrients and water. They feature apical rooting and multiple buds that produce short, fleshy petioles, which are terete, 9.5–103 cm long, and often sheathed at the base with green to purple tinges. All plant parts contain a white or yellowish sap, and the tubers, leaves, and stems harbor calcium oxalate crystals, rendering them toxic upon ingestion. Leaves emerge directly from the tubers and are the most prominent feature, displaying peltate, sagittate, or broadly ovate-cordate shapes, measuring 9.5–57 cm long and 5–22 cm wide. Petioles are 3 or more times longer than the blades, supporting these large, heart- or arrowhead-shaped that dry to grayish green or yellowish brown. Foliage coloration is highly variable across the genus, featuring patterns of green, white, pink, red, silver, or mottled combinations, with prominent veins, spots, and margins accented by anthocyanins for red and pink hues, for greens, and reduced pigments yielding whites. The is rarely observed in cultivation, as plants are primarily valued for foliage, but consists of 1–3 peduncles per leaf axil, 6–48 cm long, bearing a spadix enclosed in a spathe. The spathe measures 5–14.5 cm, with a convolute green tube 2–5 cm long and a blade that is greenish white to white; the spadix, 4–11.5 cm, includes staminate flowers (cream to white), sterile sections, and pistillate portions with parietal and multiple ovules.

Reproduction

Caladium primarily reproduces vegetatively through the division of its tubers, which serve as the main organ. These tubers produce small offsets, or cormels, that develop buds and , allowing them to grow into new, genetically identical once separated from the parent. in Caladium occurs via monoecious inflorescences consisting of a spadix enclosed by a spathe. The spadix is organized with female flowers at the base, an intermediate zone of sterile flowers, and male flowers positioned above, facilitating cross-pollination. The spathe emits a strong sweet that attracts dynastine beetles, such as Cyclocephala celata, which serve as primary pollinators by transferring between female and male flowers on the spadix. Seed production is uncommon in cultivation but takes place in natural habitats, where fertilized ovaries develop into berries containing . These are dispersed by or through animal-mediated endozoochory , though their viability is generally low due to physiological and rapid deterioration during storage, often lasting only 1-2 years under optimal conditions. The life cycle of Caladium is characterized by seasonal above-ground growth during the , when tubers sprout leaves and inflorescences, followed by in the as foliage senesces and energy reserves return to the tubers. These tubers can survive for several years underground, enabling the plant to perennialize across multiple cycles.

Distribution and habitat

Native range

The genus Caladium is native to the tropical regions of Central and South America, with its primary distribution spanning Central America from Honduras to Panama and extending into northern South America, including Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil, Peru, and the Amazon basin. This range encompasses wet tropical biomes where the plants thrive in shaded, humid understories. Among the 19 accepted species, C. bicolor exhibits the broadest distribution, occurring across much of the genus's range from southward to northern , including widespread presence in the and surrounding areas. In contrast, C. schomburgkii is more restricted to northern , particularly , , and northern , while C. humboldtii is found in southern and northern . Other species, such as C. praetermissum, are endemic to specific locales within and , highlighting regional variations in . Caladium species evolved within the tropical rainforests of the as part of the ancient monocot family , which originated in West during the , with modern diversification centered in the Neotropics and no evidence of pre-human dispersal outside the . Most species are not currently assessed as threatened due to their relatively wide distributions, but Amazonian endemics face vulnerability from ongoing , which has resulted in nearly 9% forest loss in the basin from 2001 to 2020, though rates have declined significantly since 2012 and continued to decrease as of 2024.

Introduced and naturalized areas

Caladium species, primarily C. bicolor, have been introduced worldwide through the international trade, beginning in during the mid-18th century when tubers were first imported from for cultivation in greenhouses. This trade facilitated their spread to tropical and subtropical regions, where escapes from gardens and discarded material have established and naturalized populations in humid, shaded environments. By the late , introductions reached , including the in 1893, leading to widespread horticultural use and occasional . Naturalized populations of C. bicolor occur across , including , , and (such as the and ); parts of , notably West Tropical (Benin, , , , ) and West-Central Tropical (Central African Republic, , Gulf of Guinea Islands), as well as the Western Indian Ocean islands (, ); Pacific islands, including the , , , , Tuamotu Archipelago, , and Wallis-Futuna Islands; and regions in the , such as in the United States and various Caribbean islands (, , , , , , Trinidad-Tobago, Venezuelan Antilles, ). In , while primarily cultivated, introduced have established in wetland margins and disturbed areas, supported by commercial production that began in the early around Lake Placid, now accounting for over 90% of global output. In introduced ranges, C. bicolor is generally non-invasive and confined to human-disturbed sites, though it can form dense stands in wetlands that outcompete native plants. It is listed as invasive in several Pacific locations, including , , , , (particularly Puna and South Hilo districts on Hawai'i Island, where it persists in deep, clay-rich soils along roadsides and streams), and the , potentially altering local ecosystems through vegetative spread. Current extent remains widespread in the , with naturalized occurrences tied to ongoing ornamental cultivation and suitable moist habitats.

Ecology

Habitat preferences

Caladium species are primarily found in the shaded of tropical rainforests and swamps across South and Central America, where they occupy moist, low-elevation habitats with high organic content in the soil. These environments provide the dappled light and consistent moisture essential for their growth as tuberous geophytes in the wet tropical . In their natural habitats, Caladium plants require warm temperatures ranging from 20°C to 30°C and high levels to support active growth during the . Distinct wet-dry seasonal cycles are critical, as the onset of drier periods induces , allowing the plants to conserve resources until moisture returns. Caladium favors well-drained yet consistently moist, acidic soils rich in , which retain water and nutrients without becoming waterlogged. They thrive in partial shade or filtered to prevent scorch from direct exposure, reflecting their to conditions. Key adaptations include tubers that store water and essential nutrients to survive extended dry spells, with leaves becoming during periods of to minimize water loss.

Pollination and dispersal

In Caladium, particularly the well-studied species C. bicolor, a specialized pollination system typical of the Araceae family involves scarab beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae, Rutelinae) such as Cyclocephala celata. These pollinators are attracted to the inflorescences by a strong, sweet odor emitted from the spathe and spadix, particularly during the evening anthesis phases, and by thermogenic heating that raises spadix temperatures up to 11°C above ambient air levels. The thermogenesis not only volatilizes floral scents but also provides metabolic warmth, enhancing beetle activity and retention within the floral chamber formed by the enclosing spathe. Beetles enter the chamber during the female phase, contact stigmas, and remain trapped overnight, feeding on sterile florets and mating; they are released the following evening during the male phase to carry pollen to other inflorescences. This trap mechanism ensures efficient cross-pollination in the humid, shaded understories where Caladium thrives, though detailed studies are limited for species beyond C. bicolor. The breeding system of Caladium is protogynous, with the female phase preceding the male phase on the spadix, promoting to maintain . However, plants are self-compatible, allowing geitonogamous if beetles transfer from the same individual. In natural populations, seed set remains low due to sporadic visits, influenced by environmental cues such as seasonal rainfall and humidity that affect abundance and receptivity. All visited inflorescences typically develop fruits, underscoring limitation as a key constraint on in the wild. Dispersal in Caladium combines sexual and vegetative strategies, adapted to the wet, habitats. , borne in small berries (1–2 per fruit in some species like C. ternatum), are primarily dispersed by hydrochory, floating on floodwaters in riverine or environments, and secondarily by zoochory, as birds or small mammals consume the fleshy berries and excrete viable seeds. Vegetative spread occurs via rhizomes and detachable bulbils or small tubers produced from lateral buds, which detach and establish new up to 80 cm from the parent during disturbance or seasonal flooding. This clonal propagation predominates in stable populations, buffering against low sexual . In forest understories, Caladium inflorescences play an ecological role by providing sheltered mating and feeding sites for scarab beetles, supporting populations in low-light, humid microsites where few other resources are available. This mutualism enhances beetle reproduction while facilitating Caladium across fragmented habitats.

Chemical defenses and toxicity

Caladium species produce crystals, known as , as their primary toxic compounds, distributed throughout all plant parts including leaves, stems, petioles, and tubers. These needle-like crystals are housed in specialized idioblast cells and are released upon mechanical damage, such as chewing by herbivores, penetrating soft tissues and causing immediate mechanical irritation along with chemical reactions that lead to intense oral pain, swelling of the mouth and throat, excessive salivation, and gastrointestinal distress if ingested. In addition to raphides, Caladium tissues contain other defensive chemicals, including cyanogenic glycosides concentrated in roots and bulbs, which hydrolyze to release hydrogen cyanide upon tissue disruption, further inhibiting herbivore feeding. Protease inhibitors, present in the Araceae family to which Caladium belongs, work synergistically with raphides; the crystals create entry points in herbivore mouthparts or digestive linings, allowing these proteins to access and disrupt enzymatic digestion, amplifying the plant's defensive efficacy against insects and mammals. This combination exemplifies a multifaceted chemical strategy, where raphides provide physical deterrence while biochemical agents like cyanogenic glycosides and protease inhibitors target physiological processes. Ecologically, these compounds deter a range of herbivores, including mammals and , by inflicting rapid tissue damage and metabolic interference that discourages further consumption; for instance, the "needle effect" of facilitates deeper penetration of toxins, leading to higher mortality rates in feeding larvae compared to either mechanism alone. All Caladium are poisonous to humans, with ingestion causing the aforementioned symptoms and skin contact with the sap provoking characterized by redness, itching, and blistering due to the irritant . Over a thousand cultivars of Caladium bicolor, derived from wild South American stock, universally retain this toxicity profile despite selective breeding for ornamental traits.

Cultivation and uses

History of cultivation

Caladium species, native to the tropical forests of South and Central America, including the Amazon River basin, were first introduced to cultivation in during the late 1700s, where they were prized for their dramatic foliage as an "old-fashioned" . European horticulturists began breeding efforts in the mid-1800s, with early milestones including the description of varieties by French horticulturist Antoine Chantin in 1858, who received tubers from South American travelers and contributed to the initial diversification of forms. These developments built on explorations that documented the plants as early as the late , marking the transition from wild collection to structured hybridization. Commercial varieties emerged from the Amazon region in the 1800s, spreading through European greenhouses before reaching the Americas, where private breeding gained momentum in during the 1920s. In , horticulturists like Henry Nehrling initiated hybridization at his gardens near Orlando, producing thousands of selections that laid the foundation for the modern industry. The launched a public breeding program in 1976, releasing 49 cultivars as of 2025 to enhance traits like color and disease resistance, contributing to the over 1,000 named cultivars of Caladium bicolor available today. This proliferation reflects ongoing efforts to adapt the plant for ornamental use, with thousands of varieties documented historically. By the early 20th century, Lake Placid in emerged as a key hub, with caladiums first cultivated there in the and expanding rapidly post-World War II; today, the region accounts for over 90% of global production, including nearly all U.S. bulbs. The plant's global spread occurred through trade networks, leading to naturalization in tropical and subtropical areas such as parts of , , and other regions beyond its South American origins. During the , caladiums aligned with the period's plant craze, adorning greenhouses and gardens for their foliage contrast, as seen in 1880s European estates where they transitioned from exotic imports to landscape staples.

Growing conditions and care

Caladium plants thrive in warm, humid environments that mimic their tropical origins, requiring careful attention to , , and to ensure vigorous growth and vibrant foliage. They perform best in partial shade, receiving no more than 2 to 4 hours of direct per day, as excessive exposure can scorch leaves and fade colors; however, some modern cultivars tolerate limited full sun exposure. Ideal daytime temperatures range from 70°F to 85°F (21°C to 29°C), with nighttime temperatures remaining above 60°F (16°C) to prevent stress; they are hardy in USDA zones 9 to 11 but are typically grown as annuals or potted plants in cooler regions. For optimal development, Caladiums demand moist, well-drained rich in , with a slightly acidic of 6.0 to 6.5 to support uptake and prevent issues. Amend heavy soils with or bark to a depth of 2 to 3 inches for improved and drainage, ensuring the planting medium never becomes waterlogged. Water consistently to maintain even , allowing the top inch to dry slightly between waterings, as stress leads to while overwatering promotes rot; aim for thorough soaking followed by natural drainage. Fertilize monthly during the active with a balanced, slow-release NPK (such as 8-8-8 or 5-10-10) at low rates to avoid lush green foliage at the expense of color, applying 1 to 2 pounds per 100 square feet or following package directions for containers. As temperatures cool in fall, Caladium foliage naturally dies back into , a period lasting 3 to 4 months where energy is conserved in the tubers; reduce watering as leaves yellow and withhold to encourage this rest phase. For overwintering in zones below 9, dig tubers after foliage wilts, allow them to dry for 7 to 14 days in a shaded area, then store in a dry medium like or at 50°F to 60°F (10°C to 16°C) in a well-ventilated to inhibit rot. High levels above 50% are essential, particularly indoors, where misting or trays can prevent tip burn; avoid drafts and sudden temperature fluctuations, which exacerbate issues like drooping often caused by low or inconsistent watering. Outdoors, around to retain and suppress weeds, while indoors, place in bright, indirect light near east-facing windows for sustained health. When handling, wear gloves due to the plant's mild toxicity from insoluble crystals, which can irritate skin.

Propagation

Caladium plants are most commonly propagated vegetatively through division of their tubers, a method that ensures the retention of desirable hybrid traits and high reliability in cultivation. This process is typically performed in late winter or early spring, immediately following the plant's dormancy period, when tubers have been stored and new growth buds, known as "eyes," begin to emerge. The tuber is divided using a sterile, sharp knife into sections, each containing at least one prominent eye; larger tubers may yield multiple viable pieces, while smaller offsets can be separated directly from the parent. Cut surfaces are dusted with a fungicide to prevent infection and allowed to callus over for 2-3 days in a dry environment. The sections are then planted bud-up in a loose, well-draining medium such as a peat-perlite mix, at a depth of 2-3 cm (about 1 inch), and maintained at soil temperatures above 21°C (70°F) to promote sprouting. This timing post-dormancy maximizes vigor, with the method yielding uniform plants that emerge within 4-8 weeks under optimal conditions. Seed propagation, while possible, is rarely practiced in cultivation due to its challenges and the fact that most commercial Caladium varieties are hybrids that do not produce offspring true to the parent plant. Seeds, contained within white berries that ripen 5-6 weeks after , must be harvested fresh and sown immediately in a sterile, moist medium like peat moss to avoid viability loss. Sowing occurs at surface level or lightly covered, under high humidity and temperatures of 24-29°C (75-85°F), with typically occurring in 8-14 days, though full establishment may take 2-4 weeks. Success is generally low compared to vegetative methods, often below 50% due to , small size, and susceptibility to fungal issues, limiting its use primarily to breeding programs for developing new cultivars. For large-scale commercial production, offers an efficient alternative, particularly for generating virus-free stock plants free from pathogens that can spread via . begins with excising small explants from young shoots, which are surface-sterilized and cultured on Murashige and Skoog (MS) basal medium augmented with cytokinins like 1 mg/L benzylaminopurine (BAP) for shoot induction and multiplication, often combined with auxins such as 0.25 mg/L naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) to enhance rooting. Shoots proliferate rapidly, yielding up to 30-40 per explant over 4-6 weeks, with near-100% rooting success on media containing 2 mg/L (IBA) and 1 mg/L NAA. Acclimatized plantlets are transferred to a soil-sand-peat mix under high humidity (95%), achieving survival rates exceeding 90% upon hardening. This technique, though more costly, enables the of pathogen-free liners for tuber forcing, contrasting with natural seed-based by providing clonal uniformity.

Pests, diseases, and common problems

Caladium plants encounter relatively few serious pest issues in cultivation, particularly in temperate regions, though certain pests can affect foliage and tubers under suboptimal conditions. Common pests include mealybugs, which appear as white, cottony masses on leaves and stems; slugs and snails, which chew irregular holes in foliage; and caterpillars or grasshoppers that cause similar feeding damage. Mites, such as spider mites, may infest leaf undersides, leading to stippling and webbing, while , , and mealybugs can suck sap and distort new growth. These soft-bodied pests are typically managed with applications of or , applied thoroughly to undersides of leaves for effective contact control. Slugs and snails are controlled using barriers, traps, or iron baits to avoid broad-spectrum chemical use. A more significant threat in commercial production, especially in sandy soils of regions like , is root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp., including M. javanica, M. arenaria, and M. incognita), which invade roots and tubers, causing , stunting, , yellowing, and leaf dieback. Sting (Belonolaimus longicaudatus) and stubby root (Trichodorus spp.) nematodes also occur but are less damaging. Management involves on nematode-free , cleaning to prevent spread, hot water treatment of tubers at 50°C for 30–45 minutes to reduce infestation, and pre-plant fumigation with metam sodium or ; no fully resistant cultivars exist, though 'Pink Beauty' and 'Red Flash' show moderate tolerance. Diseases primarily affect tubers and roots, with fungal pathogens thriving in overly wet or cool conditions. Pythium root rot, caused by Pythium myriotylum, results in soft, blackened roots and tuber decay, often following overwatering or planting in soil below 60–70°F. Fusarium tuber rot similarly leads to internal discoloration and collapse of tubers. Leaf spots, manifesting as tan to brown lesions on lower leaves, arise from fungal infections like Colletotrichum caladii (anthracnose) or bacterial pathogens, exacerbated by poor air circulation and overhead watering. Control includes drench applications of fungicides such as Subdue (metalaxyl) for Pythium and Medallion (fludioxonil) for Fusarium and leaf spot fungi, initiated 1–2 weeks after planting; affected leaves should be removed and discarded to limit spread. Non-pathogenic problems often stem from environmental stress. Leaf drooping or occurs with excess water, high heat, or underwatering, while yellowing may indicate deficiencies (e.g., iron or ) or exposure to cold temperatures below 55°F, which also predispose to rot. The plant's fragile, heart-shaped leaves are prone to tearing from strong winds or hail, resulting in ragged edges without infection. Prevention focuses on cultural practices to minimize risks: ensure good airflow around to reduce , water at the base to keep soil evenly moist but not saturated, and new tubers or for inspection before integration. Storing tubers in a dry, warm environment (50–60°F) during prevents fungal rots.

Ornamental and public display uses

Caladiums are prized as ornamental foliage , particularly in shaded landscapes where their vibrant, heart-shaped leaves provide striking color and texture. They are commonly used in shade gardens, borders, and containers to create lush, tropical effects, often planted en masse or as accents to contrast with flowering companions like coral bells or . With over 1,000 cultivars available, offering a wide array of colors from white and pink to red and multicolored patterns, caladiums allow for diverse design possibilities in these settings. As indoor houseplants, caladiums thrive when potted in bright, indirect light, such as near north- or east-facing windows, where they deliver a bold tropical ambiance without requiring direct sun. Their popularity stems from the ability to maintain vivid foliage year-round in controlled environments, making them a favored choice for adding drama to living spaces. In , the National Garden Bureau recognized caladium as the Bulb of the Year, underscoring its enduring appeal in . In public displays, caladiums feature prominently in annual events that highlight their ornamental value, including the Lake Placid Caladium Festival held each July in , which includes farm tours, exhibits, and vendor sales celebrating the plant's role in local culture. The Florida Caladium Showcase, an annual indoor exhibition at the Gaylord Palms Resort in Kissimmee since 2003, showcases elaborate arrangements of thousands of plants, drawing visitors to experience their dramatic visual impact. Large-scale plantings also appear in public parks and gardens, such as the caladium trail at , where they enhance pathways and open areas with colorful, textured borders. Commercially, dominates global caladium production, with over 1,200 acres dedicated to tuber cultivation, primarily in Highlands County, supplying tubers for ornamental and event uses worldwide. This bulk production supports the creation of eye-catching displays at festivals, resorts, and public venues, where caladiums are arranged in expansive beds or containers for seasonal spectacles.

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