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Schematic of the internal structure of a typical cinder cone

A cinder cone or scoria cone[1] is a steep, conical landform of loose pyroclastic fragments, such as volcanic ash, clinkers, or scoria that has been built around a volcanic vent.[2][3] The pyroclastic fragments are formed by explosive eruptions or lava fountains from a single, typically cylindrical, vent.

As the gas-charged lava is blown violently into the air, it breaks into small fragments that solidify and fall as either cinders, clinkers, or scoria around the vent to form a cone that is often symmetrical, with slopes between 30° and 40° and a nearly circular base.[4] Most cinder cones have a bowl-shaped crater at the summit.[2]

Mechanics of eruption

[edit]
Cross-section diagram of a cinder cone or scoria cone

Cinder cones range in size from tens to hundreds of meters tall.[3] They are composed of loose pyroclastic material (cinder or scoria), which distinguishes them from spatter cones, which are composed of agglomerated volcanic bombs.[5]

The pyroclastic material making up a cinder cone is usually basaltic to andesitic in composition.[6] It is often glassy and contains numerous gas bubbles "frozen" into place as magma exploded into the air and then cooled quickly. Lava fragments larger than 64 mm across, known as volcanic bombs, are also a common product of cinder cone eruptions.[3]

The growth of a cinder cone may be divided into four stages. In the first stage, a low-rimmed scoria ring forms around the erupting event. During the second stage, the rim is built up and a talus slope begins to form outside the rim. The third stage is characterized by slumping and blasts that destroy the original rim, while the fourth stage is characterized by the buildup of talus beyond the zone where cinder falls to the surface (the ballistic zone).[7]

During the waning stage of a cinder cone eruption, the magma has lost most of its gas content. This gas-depleted magma does not fountain but oozes quietly into the crater or beneath the base of the cone as lava.[8] Lava rarely issues from the top (except as a fountain) because the loose, uncemented cinders are too weak to support the pressure exerted by molten rock as it rises toward the surface through the central vent.[3] Because it contains so few gas bubbles, the molten lava is denser than the bubble-rich cinders.[8] Thus, it often burrows out along the bottom of the cinder cone, lifting the less dense cinders like corks on water, and advances outward, creating a lava flow around the cone's base.[8] When the eruption ends, a symmetrical cone of cinders sits at the center of a surrounding pad of lava.[8] If the crater is fully breached, the remaining walls form an amphitheater or horseshoe shape around the vent.

Occurrence

[edit]
Cinders at a cinder cone in San Bernardino Valley, Arizona

Basaltic cinder cones are the most characteristic type of volcano associated with intraplate volcanism.[9] They are particularly common in association with alkaline magmatism, in which the erupted lava is enriched in sodium and potassium oxides.[10]

Cinder cones are also commonly found on the flanks of shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes, and calderas.[3] For example, geologists have identified nearly 100 cinder cones on the flanks of Mauna Kea, a shield volcano located on the island of Hawaii.[3] Such cinder cones likely represent the final stages of activity of a mafic volcano.[11] However, most volcanic cones formed in Hawaiian-type eruptions are spatter cones rather than cinder cones, due to the fluid nature of the lava.[12]

The most famous cinder cone, Paricutin, grew out of a corn field in Mexico in 1943 from a new vent.[3] Eruptions continued for nine years, built the cone to a height of 424 meters (1,391 ft), and produced lava flows that covered 25 km2 (9.7 sq mi).[3]

The Earth's most historically active cinder cone is Cerro Negro in Nicaragua.[3] It is part of a group of four young cinder cones NW of Las Pilas volcano. Since its initial eruption in 1850, it has erupted more than 20 times, most recently in 1995 and 1999.[3]

Satellite images suggest that cinder cones occur on other terrestrial bodies in the Solar System.[13] On Mars, they have been reported on the flanks of Pavonis Mons in Tharsis,[14][15] in the region of Hydraotes Chaos[16] on the bottom of the Coprates Chasma,[17] or in the volcanic field Ulysses Colles.[18] It is also suggested that domical structures in Marius Hills (on the Moon) might represent lunar cinder cones.[19]

Effect of environmental conditions

[edit]
SP Crater, an extinct cinder cone in Arizona

The size and shape of cinder cones depend on environmental properties as different gravity and/or atmospheric pressure might change the dispersion of ejected scoria particles.[13] For example, cinder cones on Mars seem to be more than two times wider than terrestrial analogues[18] as lower atmospheric pressure and gravity enable wider dispersion of ejected particles over a larger area.[13][20] Therefore, it seems that erupted amount of material is not sufficient on Mars for the flank slopes to attain the angle of repose and Martian cinder cones seem to be ruled mainly by ballistic distribution and not by material redistribution on flanks as typical on Earth.[20]

Cinder cones often are highly symmetric, but strong prevailing winds at the time of eruption can cause a greater accumulation of cinder on the downwind side of the vent.[11]

Monogenetic cones

[edit]
Sunset Crater, a young monogenetic cinder cone in Arizona that began forming around the year 1075 CE

Some cinder cones are monogenetic, forming from a single short eruptive episode that produces a very small volume of lava. The eruption typically last just weeks or months, but can occasionally last fifteen years or longer.[21] Parícutin in Mexico, Diamond Head, Koko Head, Punchbowl Crater, Mt Le Brun from the Coalstoun Lakes volcanic field, and some cinder cones on Mauna Kea are monogenetic cinder cones. However, not all cinder cones are monogenetic, with some ancient cinder cones[example needed] showing intervals of soil formation between flows that indicate that eruptions were separated by thousands to tens of thousands of years.[21]

Monogenetic cones likely form when the rate of magma supply to a volcanic field is very low and the eruptions are spread out in space and time. This prevents any one eruption from establishing a system of "plumbing" that would provide an easy path to the surface for subsequent eruptions. Thus each eruption must find its independent path to the surface.[22][23]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Cinder cone

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A cinder cone, also known as a cone, is the simplest and most common type of , formed as a steep, symmetrical built from loose fragments of pyroclastic material, primarily vesicular basaltic and , ejected explosively from a single volcanic vent during a relatively short eruptive episode. These volcanoes typically develop through Strombolian or Vulcanian eruptions, where gas-charged fragments into cinders that solidify in the air and accumulate around the vent at an of about 30–33 degrees, often culminating in a bowl-shaped crater at the summit. Cinder cones form monogenetically, meaning they usually erupt only once in their lifetime, with most eruptions lasting less than a month and rarely exceeding one year, driven by basaltic to basaltic-andesitic magma that produces vigorous lava fountains up to several hundred meters high. The process begins with explosive ejection of gas-rich lava blobs that cool and fall back to build the cone's slopes, and as gas content diminishes, the eruption may transition to effusive lava flows emerging from the base or flanks, sometimes eroding the cone's shape into asymmetrical or horseshoe forms due to wind or flow direction. These features are prevalent in volcanic fields worldwide, particularly in regions with hotspot or rift volcanism, and can emerge suddenly in areas far from major volcanic centers. Morphologically, cinder cones are characterized by their compact size, rarely exceeding 300 meters (1,000 feet) in height and often measuring 100–200 meters, with a roughly circular or oval base and steep sides composed of layered, unconsolidated , bombs, and lapilli that give them a dark, rugged appearance. They may include subsidiary features like spatter ramps, side vents (bocas), or small associated lava flows, but lack the extensive layering or broad shields seen in other types; erosion over time can expose internal structures or reduce them to low mounds. The for cinder cone eruptions typically ranges from 1 to 2, indicating mild to moderate explosivity compared to larger volcanic systems. Notable examples include in , which grew to 400 meters high between 1943 and 1952, destroying nearby villages and providing key insights into volcanic processes, and on Hawaii's , which reached 255 meters during its 1983–1986 formation phase. In the United States, prominent cinder cones occur in national parks such as (, ~300 meters high, erupted circa 1085 CE) and Cinder Cone in (, 215 meters high, active in 1666 CE), while fields like Craters of the Moon () host dozens of these features from Pleistocene to activity. Cinder cones are abundant in the western U.S., , and the , numbering in the thousands globally. While generally low-hazard due to their small scale and short-lived eruptions, cinder cones can pose risks including ballistic , pyroclastic falls, and lahars from lakes or flank erosion, with precursors like earthquakes signaling potential new cone formation in volcanic regions. Their study contributes to understanding monogenetic and eruption , as many remain dormant but capable of reactivation after millennia.

Definition and Characteristics

Geological Definition

A cinder cone is a steep-sided, formed primarily from loose pyroclastic fragments, such as , cinders, and , that accumulate around a single volcanic vent. These fragments consist of solidified lava particles ejected during volcanic activity, creating a simple volcanic landform distinct from more complex structures like stratovolcanoes, which involve layered deposits of lava and pyroclastics. Unlike shield volcanoes with broad, gentle slopes, cinder cones exhibit a compact, mound-like shape due to the piled-up nature of their unconsolidated materials. The composition of cinder cones typically includes basaltic to andesitic materials, reflecting the types involved in their construction. These cones form through Strombolian-style eruptions, characterized by moderate explosions that eject pyroclastic debris from vents fed by viscous, gas-rich of basaltic to basaltic-andesite composition. The resulting deposits are predominantly dark, vesicular with minor , providing a porous and friable structure. Cinder cones generally range in height from 30 to 300 meters, though most are under 200 meters tall, with base diameters typically ranging from 300 to 1,000 meters. Their slopes are steep, typically angled at 30° to 33°, approaching the angle of repose for loose pyroclastic material and contributing to their sharp, conical profile. At the summit, a bowl-shaped is common, usually wider than it is deep, formed by the subsidence or excavation during the final eruptive phases.

Physical Properties

Cinder cones are characterized by a symmetrical, steep-sided conical morphology, with slopes typically ranging from 30° to 33°, built from loose, unconsolidated pyroclastic fragments such as , cinders, and . This loose aggregation of materials, primarily basaltic to andesitic in composition, results in structures that are highly susceptible to by wind, water, and , often leading to the development of gullies and talus aprons over time. The internal structure of cinder cones consists of layered deposits of varying grain sizes, accumulated around a central vent, with coarser fragments like volcanic bombs and blocks interspersed among finer and layers; coarser materials tend to be more concentrated near the base. These layers reflect episodic deposition, creating a heterogeneous fill that lacks significant consolidation or . At the summit, cinder cones feature a bowl-shaped , with typical diameters ranging from 100 to 200 meters and depths of 50 to 100 meters, though these dimensions can vary based on the scale of the edifice. For example, the at Capulin Volcano measures approximately 440 meters in diameter and 125 meters deep, illustrating larger end-member cases. Cinder cone sizes exhibit variations influenced by eruptive volume, with average base diameters spanning 300 to 1,000 and heights generally between 100 and 300 , though exceptional examples like reached 424 . Median values from morphometric analyses indicate a basal of about 800 and a height of 90 for typical cones.

Formation and Eruption Mechanics

Eruption Processes

Cinder cones form primarily through Strombolian-style eruptions, characterized by moderate explosions resulting from gas-charged bursting through a central vent. These eruptions involve intermittent bursts of pyroclasts ejected to heights of tens to hundreds of meters, driven by the accumulation and sudden release of volcanic gases within the conduit. Unlike more violent Plinian eruptions, Strombolian activity produces discrete, firework-like displays without sustained eruptive columns, allowing for the buildup of loose around the vent. The process begins with molten basaltic to basaltic-andesitic lava rising slowly in the conduit, where dissolved gases such as and exsolve into bubbles due to decreasing . As bubbles coalesce into larger slugs, they reach the surface and fragment the low-viscosity (typically 10–10³ Pa·s), propelling it as lava fountains up to 300 meters high in some cases. The moderate gas content (around 0.3 wt% H₂O and 0.02–0.1 wt% CO₂) and relatively low of this magma composition favor explosive fragmentation over effusive flows, with the ejected material cooling rapidly in the air to form , cinders, and volcanic bombs rather than developing extensive fluid lava streams. This pyroclastic dominance results from the gas expansion accelerating magma clots to velocities of 80–250 m/s at the vent. The follow ballistic trajectories, arcing through the air in parabolic paths governed by their initial ejection and the of . Larger fragments, such as bombs, travel farther—often hundreds of from the vent—before landing, while finer particles may be carried by . These trajectories contribute to the symmetric accumulation of material that defines the cone's steep slopes, with deposits thickening near the vent.

Stages of Development

The development of a cinder cone typically progresses through four distinct stages, driven primarily by involving explosive bursts and lava fountains from a single vent. These stages reflect the evolution from initial vent formation to cone stabilization, with active growth often lasting from days to several years, though 50% of eruptions conclude in under 30 days and 95% within one year. In the initial stage, a new vent opens as pressurized rises, leading to explosive bursts that eject coarse pyroclastic fragments, such as and bombs, forming a small, low-rimmed mound around the eruption site. These fragments, propelled by rapidly expanding gases, fall back near the vent due to their ballistic trajectories, creating a rudimentary ring typically tens of meters in diameter. During the buildup stage, repeated Strombolian eruptions produce sustained lava fountains that deposit layers of cinders and spatter, rapidly constructing the cone and widening its base through avalanching on steep slopes. Much of the cone's final height is achieved in this phase, with growth rates exceeding 100 meters vertically in the first week for intense activity, resulting in a structure approaching its mature form. The peak activity stage marks the cone's maximum height, often 100-300 meters, with a well-defined summit forming from ongoing explosions and minor falls that blanket the surrounding area. At this point, the cone exhibits symmetrical layering of dipping outward from the vent, stabilizing its steep flanks at angles of 25-35 degrees. In the decline stage, eruption intensity wanes as gas content in the diminishes, shifting to effusive lava flows that emanate from the base or flank fissures, often breaching the cone and causing partial destruction through rafting of cinder material. This leads to stabilization of the structure, with the cone entering and preserving its final morphology for subsequent geological study.

Global Distribution and Examples

Occurrence Patterns

Cinder cones predominantly form in monogenetic volcanic fields, which consist of clusters of small, single-eruption volcanoes typically dominated by or cinder cone morphologies. These fields are prevalent in diverse tectonic settings, including continental and oceanic rift zones where extensional stresses facilitate magma ascent, mantle hotspots that drive intraplate magmatism, and back-arc basins behind subduction zones where slab induces extension. Such environments allow for the episodic rise of basaltic to andesitic s, resulting in the construction of isolated cones without subsequent reactivation. On Earth, cinder cones are closely associated with intraplate volcanism in hotspot chains like the and continental rifts such as the , where they emerge from low-degree of the mantle. They also commonly develop on the flanks of larger volcanic edifices, including shield volcanoes and stratovolcanoes, where parasitic vents exploit weaknesses in the host structure. Temporally, activity in these monogenetic fields exhibits clustering, with 10 to 100 cones often forming over spans of 1 to 10 million years, reflecting pulsed supply and migration of volcanic loci. Globally, their density is highest within the Pacific subduction belt and alkaline intraplate provinces, with over 1,000 identified in major fields like the alone. Extraterrestrial occurrence patterns mirror terrestrial ones in rocky bodies but vary with planetary conditions. Cinder cones are common on Mars, particularly in the volcanic province where monogenetic fields produce clusters of small shields and cones amid extensive basaltic plains. On the , they appear as low-relief pyroclastic cones linked to localized gas-driven eruptions in basaltic maria. In contrast, they are absent on gas giants like and Saturn, which lack solid surfaces conducive to cone-building processes.

Notable Examples

One of the most famous examples of a cinder cone is in , which emerged dramatically in a cornfield on February 20, 1943, witnessed by local farmer Dionisio Pulido as the ground split and lava began erupting. The monogenetic cone grew rapidly through explosive activity and accumulation, reaching a height of approximately 424 meters by the end of its nine-year eruption in 1952, during which it buried nearby villages and altered local . This event provided unprecedented scientific observation of cinder cone formation, with eyewitness accounts documenting the initial fissure and subsequent cone-building phases. Cerro Negro in exemplifies recurrent activity within volcanic chains, having formed as a cinder cone in April 1850 near the Las Pilas and since producing over 20 explosive eruptions, the most recent in 1999. Located in the Central American Volcanic Arc, the 728-meter-high cone has built a surrounding through frequent Strombolian-style explosions, demonstrating how cinder cones can contribute to ongoing volcanic fields despite their typically monogenetic nature. Its persistent activity, including ash emissions and seismic swarms, highlights the hazards in densely populated regions like León. Pu'u ʻŌʻō, situated on the east flank of in , formed as a cinder-and-spatter cone starting in June 1983 through 44 lava fountains that built its structure over the initial three years. The eruption continued with prolonged effusive phases until April 2018, integrating dynamics with the broader shield volcanism by channeling magma along rift zones and producing extensive lava flows covering over 200 square kilometers. This 35-year event, the longest and most voluminous from Kīlauea's east rift in , illustrates how cinder cones can sustain activity within larger volcanic systems. An ancient example is in , , which erupted around 1085 CE as part of the , with tree-ring dating confirming the timing and revealing evidence of multiple eruptive phases including an initial fissure stage, a highly cone-building phase, and a waning effusive stage. Though primarily monogenetic, the cone's development involved at least two distinct building stages over the eruption period, producing a 300-meter-high structure and the Bonito lava flow, now preserved in Volcano National Monument. Centuries of erosion have since sculpted the unconsolidated , making it vulnerable to and human impact, with hiking restricted since 1973 to protect the site. Recent activity at in Iceland's Peninsula, a rift setting on the , produced new cinder-like cones during a series of eruptions from March 2021 to August 2025, with fire fountains and lava flows building small pyroclastic structures in the Geldingadalir, Litli-Hrútur, and nearby Sundhnúksgígar areas. These events, following 800 years of quiescence, involved multiple episodes of fissure-fed effusions that formed nascent cones up to 20 meters high, exemplifying rapid cone development in extensional tectonic environments. The activity displaced local communities and provided insights into mantle-derived basaltic magmatism in a subaerial .

Environmental and Extraterrestrial Influences

Effects of Earthly Conditions

Cinder cones on are profoundly shaped by terrestrial environmental factors, including from and , which accelerate the breakdown of their loose pyroclastic deposits in regions with adequate moisture. In wetter climates, such as temperate zones characterized by cover, rain-induced slope-wash, formation, and bioturbation from plant roots hasten degradation, reducing cone height and steepness over relatively short geological timescales. For example, in the Medicine Lake Volcanic Field of , where annual averages around 750 mm, young cinder cones (0–100 ka) exhibit mean s of 27.7°, which decline to 15° in older cones (300–788 ka), reflecting accelerated and fluvial processes compared to arid counterparts. Similarly, studies of cones in the indicate that during wetter Pleistocene intervals (with rainfall up to 640 mm/year), rates increased, contributing to reductions from initial angles of about 26° to 9° over 80–3,740 ka, with height losses on the order of 210 m in 500 ka for cones like . further aids this process by abrading surfaces and transporting fine particles, particularly on exposed south-facing slopes where and sparse cover exacerbate . Terrain and gravitational forces impose fundamental constraints on cinder cone morphology during and after formation. On flat bases, cones accumulate symmetrically, resulting in steeper slopes (often 25–30°) due to the high of , limited only by the ballistic of pyroclasts under Earth's of 9.8 m/s², which restricts maximum range to approximately 500 m and thus caps basal diameters at 300–1,000 m. In contrast, pre-existing slopes lead to broader, asymmetric forms, with material avalanching downslope and reducing overall steepness, as observed in dated cones across the where aspect influences debris-apron development and drainage patterns. Nonlinear models calibrated on sites like Lathrop Wells, Nevada, confirm that steeper initial gradients on flat evolve faster under gravity-driven processes, while sloped substrates promote wider, lower-relief profiles through enhanced lateral spreading. Climate variations starkly contrast preservation outcomes, with arid conditions markedly extending cone longevity by minimizing erosive agents. In dry environments like the eastern , low annual rainfall (less than 150 mm) and sparse vegetation result in negligible fluvial activity, allowing cinder cones to retain structural integrity for extended periods; for instance, in the Cima volcanic field, cones dated to 1.09 ± 0.08 Ma have experienced only 15% volume loss, with height reduction rates of about 2.25 cm per 1,000 years and side slopes declining gradually from 0.575 to 0.41 over that span. This preservation is evident in Mojave examples intact for over 10,000 years, where wind dominates as a slow erosive force, forming subtle debris aprons without deep incision. Human interventions exacerbate modifications to young cinder cones, often through resource extraction and land use that disrupt their nascent stability. Mining for scoria, valued for road base, sandblasting, and landscaping, has scarred numerous cones; in the Mojave Desert's Cinder Cone Lava Beds, operations from the late 1940s to 1960s removed large volumes for construction, flattening rims and expanding debris aprons beyond natural erosion rates. Agricultural activities similarly alter fresh deposits, as seen in the field (1943–1952 eruption, ), where farmers cleared thick cinder blankets (>20–30 cm) from fields to restore cultivability, but these efforts triggered severe runoff and , widening gullies and reducing cone-adjacent slopes more aggressively than climatic processes alone. Such impacts highlight how anthropogenic actions can compress centuries of natural degradation into decades, particularly on unconsolidated material.

Extraterrestrial Cinder Cones

Cinder cones, or their analogs known as cones, have been identified on Mars, particularly in regions like and , where they exhibit wider and shallower profiles compared to terrestrial examples. These features display average flank slopes ranging from 7° to 25°, with maximum slopes rarely exceeding 30°, influenced by Mars' lower surface gravity of approximately 3.7 m/s² and thin atmosphere, which allow pyroclastic to disperse over greater distances. Observations from the (MRO), operational since 2006, have revealed these cones through high-resolution imagery, such as in Ulysses Colles and Hydraotes Colles, where morphometric analyses confirm their volcanic origin via ballistic trajectories extended by reduced gravitational pull and minimal atmospheric drag. On the , small and degraded volcanic cones resembling cinder cones are associated with ancient basaltic eruptions dating back approximately 3.3 to 3.8 billion years ago. These features, often conical mounds with summit pits, have been documented in areas like the Marius Hills, with median basal widths around 2.7 km and heights of about 115 m, showing signs of erosion and degradation due to lack of atmosphere and ongoing impacts. Initial identifications came from Apollo mission photographs and Lunar Orbiter images, while the (LRO) has provided detailed morphometric data confirming their pyroclastic nature from explosive basaltic activity. Possible cinder cone analogs exist on Io, Jupiter's innermost moon, where explosive volcanism produces plume-driven deposits amid a highly dynamic environment powered by from Jupiter's gravitational influence. Unlike stable terrestrial or martian cones, Io's features are transient and low-relief due to frequent resurfacing, with explosive eruptions ejecting sulfur-rich pyroclastics that could form cone-like accumulations if not rapidly altered. These analogs highlight the role of intense tidal forces in sustaining ongoing explosive activity, contrasting with the monogenetic, short-lived eruptions typical of cinder cones elsewhere. The presence of extraterrestrial cinder cones underscores key implications for planetary volcanism, particularly how lower gravity enables larger ejecta fields spanning up to several kilometers, as particles travel farther before settling, leading to broader, less steep edifices than on . This effect, combined with varying atmospheric densities, influences eruption dynamics and cone morphology across bodies, providing insights into diverse volcanic regimes in the Solar System.

Monogenetic Nature and Comparisons

Characteristics of Monogenetic Cones

Monogenetic cinder cones are volcanic edifices formed by single-vent eruptions that are short-lived, typically lasting from weeks to decades, and sourced from discrete batches of without significant replenishment of a persistent . These eruptions produce small-volume constructs, often less than 0.1 km³, through a combination of explosive fragmentation and effusive activity, resulting in accumulations of , bombs, and lapilli around the vent. The absence of a long-lived plumbing system distinguishes monogenetic behavior, as each cone develops from a new magmatic ascent pathway that does not reuse prior conduits. The typical lifespan of activity at an individual cinder cone is brief, ranging from 1 to 10 years, though entire monogenetic fields may encompass events spaced over up to 100,000 years. Evidence for this monogenetic nature includes the lack of conduit reuse, inferred from distinct spatial clustering of vents and the absence of overlapping feeder dikes between cones, as well as chemical homogeneity in eruption deposits indicating derivation from a single, unmixed batch. For instance, major and compositions in layers often show minimal variation, reflecting rapid transit from mantle sources without prolonged crustal interaction. While most cinder cones adhere to monogenetic patterns, rare exceptions exhibit polygenetic traits with reactivation after intervals exceeding 1,000 years, as revealed by geochronological studies in Mexican volcanic fields. In the Michoacán-Guanajuato region, for example, complexes like El Estribo demonstrate evolution from initial shield-building phases to later cinder cone construction, with indicating multiple eruptive episodes separated by significant hiatuses. Such reactivations are uncommon due to the small volumes and rapid solidification that inhibit conduit preservation. The monogenetic character of cinder cones contributes to specific hazards, characterized by sudden onset and localized impacts such as widespread ash fallout and potential lahars from rainfall on unconsolidated deposits. The 1943 eruption of in exemplifies this, with initial explosive phases producing ash plumes that blanketed areas up to 300 km away, leading to agricultural devastation and roof collapses, while subsequent rains triggered debris flows and erosion of ash-mantled slopes. These events highlight the rapid escalation from vent formation to hazardous fallout without prolonged precursory signals.

Comparisons with Other Volcanic Forms

Cinder cones differ markedly from shield volcanoes in both structure and formation. While shield volcanoes develop broad, low-profile edifices through repeated effusions of fluid basaltic lava that spread over vast distances, forming gentle slopes typically less than 5 degrees, cinder cones build steep, conical piles of loose pyroclastic fragments ejected from a single vent, resulting in slopes of 25 to 35 degrees and heights rarely exceeding 300 meters. For instance, the flanks of , a classic in , host numerous small cinder cones that punctuate its expansive shield. In contrast to stratovolcanoes, or composite volcanoes, cinder cones lack the layered accumulation of viscous lavas, pyroclastic flows, and ash deposits that create tall, symmetrical cones up to 2,400 meters high with central plugs. Stratovolcanoes form through prolonged, polygenetic activity involving both effusive and explosive eruptions, whereas cinder cones are monogenetic features with short-lived, Strombolian-style eruptions that produce unconsolidated without significant internal solidification or plumbing systems. This results in cinder cones being much smaller and more ephemeral, often eroding rapidly after a single eruptive episode lasting days to years. Unlike maars, which form shallow, broad craters through phreatomagmatic explosions where interacts with to eject and without building a prominent cone, cinder cones accumulate externally around the vent to form a raised edifice. Maars typically exhibit flat-floored craters with diameters of 60 to 2,000 meters and minimal topographic relief, often filling with water to create lakes, in contrast to the bowl-shaped summit craters of cinder cones that sit atop their steep piles. Cinder cones also contrast with lava domes, which grow as endogenous, bulbous mounds of highly viscous, silica-rich lava that extrudes slowly and piles up due to its resistance to flow, often reaching heights of 100 to 200 meters but lacking the loose, fragmented nature of cinder deposits. While lava domes form through the endogenous expansion and fracturing of cooling rhyolitic or dacitic material, cinder cones result from the exogenous fallout of basaltic to andesitic and bombs. In volcanic fields, cinder cones often serve as precursors or satellite features to larger systems, emerging on the flanks or rifts of and stratovolcanoes to indicate ongoing mantle-derived activity without contributing substantially to the main edifice's growth. These relationships highlight cinder cones' role in monogenetic volcanism, where they represent isolated, short-term vents within broader polygenetic provinces.

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  40. https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1028n/report.pdf
  41. https://www2.tulane.edu/~sanelson/Natural_Disasters/volclandforms.htm
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