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Tone contour
Tone contour
Tone contour
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This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

A tone contour or contour tone is a tone in a tonal language which shifts from one pitch to another over the course of the syllable or word. Tone contours are especially common in East Asia, Southeast Asia, West Africa, Nilo-Saharan languages, Khoisan languages, Oto-Manguean languages and some languages of South America.

Contours

[edit]
Chart invented by the Chinese linguist Yuen Ren Chao illustrating the contours of the four tones of Standard Chinese

When the pitch descends, the contour is called a falling tone; when it ascends, a rising tone; when it descends and then returns, a dipping or falling-rising tone; and when it ascends and then returns, it is called a peaking or rising-falling tone. A tone in a contour-tone language which remains at approximately an even pitch is called a level tone. Tones which are too short to exhibit much of a contour, typically because of a final plosive consonant, may be called checked, abrupt, clipped, or stopped tones.

It has been theorized that the relative timing of a contour tone is not distinctive. That is, in some accents or languages a falling tone might fall at the end and in others it might fall at the beginning, but that such differences would not be distinctive. However, in Dinka it is reported that the phonemic falling tone falls late (impressionistically high level + fall, [˥˦˩]) while the falling allophone of the low tone starts early (impressionistically fall + low level, [˥˨˩]).[1]

Lexical tones more complex than dipping (falling–rising) or peaking (rising–falling) are quite rare, perhaps nonexistent, though prosody may produce such effects. The Old Xiang dialect of Qiyang is reported to have two "double contour" lexical tones, high and low fall–rise–fall, or perhaps high falling – low falling and low falling – high falling: ˦˨˧˨ and ˨˩˦˨ (4232 and 2142). The report did not determine if the final fall was lexical or merely the declination typically seen at the ends of prosodic units, so these may actually be dipping tones.[2]

Transcription

[edit]
  • Diacritics such as falling ⟨â⟩, rising ⟨ǎ⟩, dipping ⟨a᷉⟩, peaking ⟨a᷈⟩, high falling ⟨a᷇⟩, low falling ⟨a᷆⟩, high rising ⟨a᷄⟩ and low rising ⟨a᷅⟩. Or the simpler register tones, where diacritics such as high ⟨á⟩, mid ⟨ā⟩, and low ⟨à⟩ are usually sufficient for transcription. (These are also used for high, mid, and low level contour tones.)
  • Tone letters such as mid level ⟨˧⟩, high falling ⟨˥˩⟩, low falling ⟨˨˩⟩, mid rising ⟨˧˥⟩, low rising ⟨˩˧⟩, dipping ⟨˨˩˦⟩, and peaking ⟨˧˦˩⟩.
  • Numerical substitutions for tone letters. The seven tones above would be written ⟨33⟩, ⟨51⟩, ⟨21⟩, ⟨35⟩, ⟨13⟩, ⟨214⟩, ⟨341⟩, for an Asian language, or ⟨3⟩, ⟨15⟩, ⟨45⟩, ⟨31⟩, ⟨53⟩, ⟨452⟩, ⟨325⟩, for an African or American language. (The doubling of the numeral in ⟨33⟩ in the Asian example is used to disambiguate a mid level tone from a "tone 3" (3rd tone), which in general is not at pitch level 3.)
  • Different spelling for the same vowel with different tones in systems like Latinxua Sin Wenz, Gwoyeu Romatzyh, Modern Literal Taiwanese etc. Compare Gwoyeu Romatzyh with Hanyu Pinyin (in parentheses): bai (bāi), bair (bái), bae (bǎi), bay (bài).

See also

[edit]

Notes

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Tone contour

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A tone contour is a phonological feature in tonal languages where the fundamental frequency (pitch) of a syllable varies in direction over its duration, typically involving rises, falls, or more complex movements such as rise-fall patterns, to distinguish lexical meanings or grammatical functions. Unlike level tones, which maintain a relatively constant pitch height (high, mid, or low), contour tones require sufficient syllable duration for their realization and are often phonetically specified as sequences of underlying level tones, such as low-to-high (LH) for rising or high-to-low (HL) for falling. This dynamic pitch variation is a hallmark of contour-tone languages, found prominently in families like Sino-Tibetan (e.g., Mandarin Chinese), Niger-Congo (e.g., Yoruba), and Hmong-Mien, where it expands the inventory of contrastive tones beyond simple registers. In phonological representation, contour tones are commonly analyzed using , where they link as a unit or sequence to a single tone-bearing unit (TBU), typically a or syllabic , allowing for spreading or simplification in certain contexts. For instance, in Standard Mandarin, the four main tones include three contours—a high-falling tone (HL, as in mà 'scold'), a low-rising tone (LH, as in má 'hemp'), and a dipping tone (as in mǎ 'horse')—contrasting with the level high tone (mā 'mother'), each altering word meaning. Similarly, Cantonese features intricate contours, such as a high-rising (Tone 2) and low-rising (Tone 5), which interact with surrounding tones in processes. These patterns are notated using diacritics (e.g., â for falling), Chao tone numbers (e.g., 51 for high-falling), or tone letters (e.g., ˥˩), facilitating cross-linguistic comparison. Contour tones exhibit universal tendencies in their distribution, often restricted to phonologically prominent positions like long vowels, stressed syllables, or phrase-final locations, due to perceptual and articulatory constraints requiring at least 90 milliseconds for detectable pitch change. Languages with contours typically also possess level tones, and contours imply a higher tone contrast inventory, as seen in the World Atlas of Language Structures where they correlate with systems having four or more distinctions. Rising contours are generally more marked and effortful to produce than falls, influencing their rarity and phonetic realization across languages. This interplay of and underscores tone contours' role in shaping the prosodic systems of over 40% of the world's languages.

Fundamentals

Definition

A tone contour refers to the melodic shape or pitch trajectory realized over the duration of a syllable or word in tonal languages, where variations in pitch serve to distinguish lexical or grammatical meaning. In such systems, the fundamental frequency (F0) of the voice modulates in a systematic way, creating patterns that function as phonemic units essential for word identification. Unlike stress, which primarily involves increases in amplitude, duration, and sometimes pitch to highlight prominence within a word, or intonation, which operates at the phrase or sentence level to convey pragmatic information such as questions or statements, tone contours are inherently lexical and phonemic. They encode meaning at the morpheme or word level, independent of broader prosodic structure, and their alteration can change the semantic content of an utterance. Tone systems include both level tones, such as high (sustained at a relatively elevated pitch) and low (sustained at a relatively depressed pitch), and dynamic contour tones like rising (pitch increases progressively), falling (pitch decreases progressively), and complex forms such as rising-falling or falling-rising. Contour tones are often phonologically represented as sequences of level tones linked to a single tone-bearing unit, such as low-to-high (LH) for rising or high-to-low (HL) for falling. These elements form the building blocks of tonal inventories, with contours often requiring sufficient syllable duration for their realization. The term "tone contour" originated in early 20th-century sinological studies of Chinese languages, where scholars like Yuen-Ren Chao developed systematic notations to describe pitch patterns, marking a shift from traditional categorical labels to precise representations of pitch trajectories. This approach, pioneered in works such as Chao's 1928 study on Wu dialects, was later extended to analyze tonal systems in other language families worldwide.

Role in Tonal Languages

In tonal languages, tone contours fulfill a primary phonemic function by serving as contrastive features that distinguish lexical meanings, operating alongside consonants and vowels to form a third class of phonemes. This allows speakers to differentiate words solely through variations in pitch patterns, as exemplified in Mandarin Chinese where the syllable ma with a high-level tone means "mother" (mā), a rising tone means "hemp" (má), a dipping tone means "horse" (mǎ), and a falling tone means "scold" (mà). Such minimal pairs highlight how tone contours are essential for lexical disambiguation, with their suprasegmental nature enabling them to overlay syllables without altering segmental structure. Tonal languages, which employ tone contours in this way, account for approximately 60–70% of the world's languages and are geographically concentrated in specific regions and families. In Asia, they predominate among Sino-Tibetan (e.g., Chinese, Tibetan), Hmong-Mien, and Tai-Kadai (e.g., Thai, Vietnamese) families; in , they are widespread in Niger-Congo (e.g., Yoruba, Igbo), Nilo-Saharan, and groups; and in the , they appear in indigenous families such as Otomanguean (e.g., Zapotec) and some . This distribution reflects both areal diffusion and independent developments within language families. Tone contours typically associate with syllables or morphemes in these languages, forming prosodic units that can interact with segmental elements to shape and meaning. For instance, tones may influence vowel quality via associated phonation types, such as breathy or in register tone systems, or be conditioned by consonant voicing, where low tones align with voiced onsets to lower pitch. In morphological contexts, tones linked to morphemes can spread across syllables, altering the tonal profile of compounds or inflections while preserving segmental integrity. From an evolutionary perspective, tone contours often emerge through tonogenesis, a diachronic process where pitch perturbations originally triggered by segmental features—particularly the loss of final consonants—become phonologized as contrastive tones, as reconstructed for where stops conditioned rising and falling contours. Tones may also develop from earlier pitch-accent systems, where a single prominent pitch per word expands into independent syllable tones, a pathway observed in some Asian and African languages transitioning from accentual to fully tonal prosody. These mechanisms underscore the historical adaptability of pitch in encoding lexical distinctions.

Types

Level Tones

Level tones are steady-pitch patterns in which the (F0) remains relatively constant throughout the , serving as a core contrastive feature in many tonal languages. This uniformity distinguishes them from dynamic pitch changes, providing a stable auditory anchor for lexical differentiation. Subtypes of level tones are primarily categorized by their relative pitch height: high level tones sustain a pitch in the mid- to high-frequency range, typically realized with faster vocal fold ; mid level tones maintain a neutral, intermediate pitch that acts as a reference point; and low level tones hold a sustained low pitch with slower vocal fold . These subtypes are relative to a speaker's and the language's tonal system, with high tones often notated as H, mid as M, and low as L. Level tones exhibit greater stability in , being less susceptible to alterations—such as spreading, deletion, or insertion—than contour tones, which allows them to function as foundational elements or anchors within tone systems. This resilience arises from their lack of inherent pitch trajectory, enabling them to persist or relink more reliably across phonological contexts like deletion or prosodic boundaries. In phonological inventories, level tones predominate in systems with two to three contrasts, where they form the basis of register distinctions, as seen in many African languages that employ simple high-low or high-mid-low registers without complex contours. Such inventories highlight level tones' role in establishing broad pitch contrasts, often spanning 2–5 distinct levels in more elaborate systems. Perceptually, level tones are cued by a consistent F0 value over the syllable's duration, with listeners relying on absolute or height for identification; these heights vary by speaker and context. This steady F0 profile facilitates , as deviations in uniformity can signal errors or intonation overlays rather than lexical shifts.

Contour Tones

Contour tones are dynamic pitch patterns in tonal languages that involve changes in (F0) over the duration of a , distinguishing them from static level tones by their directional movement. These tones require sufficient segmental duration, such as in syllables with long vowels or sonorous codas, to allow for the full realization of the pitch . Common subtypes include rising tones, which ascend from a low to a high pitch and often convey or incomplete meanings similar to question intonation in non-tonal languages; falling tones, which descend from high to low and typically mark declarative or complete statements; dipping tones, characterized by an initial fall followed by a rise, often with a low turning point; and peaking tones, featuring an initial rise followed by a fall. Rising and falling represent simple contours with a single directional change, while dipping and peaking are compound contours involving multiple turns, as seen in languages like (for dipping) and dialects (for peaking). The presence of contour tones often indicates a more complex tonal inventory, with languages featuring them typically having five or more contrasts, up to nine in some cases like the Kam language of the Kam-Sui group. In Vietnamese, northern dialects maintain six tones, several of which are contours, while central and southern dialects have five to six tones with regional variations in pronunciation. Compound contours like dipping and peaking increase phonological complexity by packing multiple pitch targets into a single tone-bearing unit, potentially built from simpler level tones in underlying representations. Contour tones are phonologically analyzed in some theories as sequences of level tones, such as high-low for falling or low-high for rising, allowing for rules that split or merge them across boundaries, as proposed for Siamese (Thai). Due to their articulatory demands, contour tones are more susceptible to simplification in phonological processes. In tone sandhi, adjacent contours often reduce to simpler forms, such as the Mandarin third tone (dipping) changing to a rising contour before another third tone to avoid complex interactions. Similarly, in loanword adaptation into tonal languages like Mandarin, foreign pitch patterns are typically mapped to native level tones rather than full contours, simplifying non-native falling or rising elements to high or mid levels based on stress perception. Acoustically, these tones are represented in pitch tracks as F0 trajectories; for example, a falling contour in White Hmong descends from approximately 267 Hz to 207 Hz over the syllable, while rising contours may ascend from around 150 Hz to 250 Hz in 200-300 ms durations in languages like Mandarin.

Phonetic Properties

Acoustic Characteristics

The (F0), which corresponds to the perceived pitch of the voice, serves as the primary acoustic correlate of tone contours in tonal languages. Tone contours are typically represented as trajectories of F0 variation over the duration of a , where level tones maintain a relatively stable F0, rising tones exhibit an increase in F0, and falling tones show a decrease in F0. For instance, in , the falling tone (tone 4) is characterized by an F0 that decreases substantially over the , starting from a high onset and dropping rapidly toward the end. Syllable duration plays a key role in shaping tone contours, as longer durations permit more pronounced F0 excursions. In tonal languages like Mandarin, average durations range from 150 to 300 ms, with longer syllables allowing for exaggerated rises or falls in F0 compared to shorter ones. This temporal extent influences the steepness of the contour; for example, in extended syllables, the F0 trajectory of a rising tone may ascend more gradually over 200-250 ms, enhancing perceptual distinctiveness. The harmonic structure of tone contours is analyzed through spectrograms, which display F0 alongside formant frequencies (F1, F2, etc.) that arise from vocal tract resonances. Higher tones tend to slightly elevate formant frequencies, particularly F1, due to subtle adjustments in vocal tract configuration accompanying elevated pitch. This effect is evident in languages like Taiwanese, where high-falling tone vowels show raised F1 values compared to low-tone counterparts, as measured in spectrograms. Variability in tone contours arises from factors such as speaker sex and age, which systematically affect F0 levels. Female speakers in tonal languages typically produce F0 values of 200-300 Hz, higher than the 100-200 Hz range for males, leading to scaled-up contours while preserving relative shapes. Age-related changes further modulate F0, with declines observed across adulthood, compressing contour ranges in older speakers. These variations are quantified through pitch-tracking algorithms applied to recordings, ensuring consistent across demographics.

Articulatory Factors

The production of tone contours relies on precise laryngeal adjustments that control the tension and vibration rate of the vocal folds to modulate (F0), the primary acoustic correlate of pitch. In tonal languages such as Mandarin, higher pitch levels and rising are achieved by contracting the cricothyroid (CT) muscle, which tilts the forward relative to the cricoid, stretching and thinning the vocal folds to increase their tension and vibration frequency. For instance, the rising Tone 2 in Mandarin (/má/, meaning "") involves prominent CT activation to elevate F0 from mid to high levels. Conversely, the thyroarytenoid (TA) muscle counteracts this by shortening and thickening the folds, reducing tension for lower or falling , as seen in the low-dipping Tone 3 (/mǎ/, meaning ""). These antagonistic muscle actions enable the dynamic pitch changes essential for distinguishing lexical meanings in tonal systems. Subglottal pressure, generated by lung airflow below the , primarily influences amplitude but indirectly shapes tone contour steepness by affecting the resistance to pitch variation during vibration. Declining subglottal pressure toward utterance ends contributes to final lowering of F0 contours across languages, including tonal ones, by reducing the driving force for sustained high pitches. In rising tones, a quality often emerges at the onset, characterized by lax vocal fold adduction and relatively lower initial subglottal pressure, which eases the transition to a sharper F0 rise; this pattern is evident in languages like White Hmong, where the mid-rising tone pairs with breathy to distinguish it from modal-voiced tones. Such phonatory adjustments help optimize the perceptual salience of contour shapes without excessive respiratory effort. Coarticulation with neighboring vowels or consonants further modifies tone contour realization by imposing articulatory overlaps that subtly alter laryngeal settings and F0 trajectories. For example, lip rounding in rounded vowels like Mandarin /u/ can slightly lower local F0 due to increased vocal tract inertance and downward pull on the , compressing the pitch range of an adjacent tone and potentially smoothing a rising contour. Similarly, anticipatory effects from consonants, such as nasals or , may induce carryover breathiness or tension that flattens or steepens contours in disyllabic sequences. These interactions ensure fluid but can lead to context-dependent variations in tone height and shape, as documented in bi-syllabic Mandarin words where preceding tones raise or lower the target tone's F0 by up to 10 Hz. The neurological control of tone integrates mechanisms for reflexive laryngeal motor commands with cortical processing for voluntary pitch modulation, particularly in tonal language speakers. The in the innervates laryngeal muscles like the CT and TA, providing baseline F0 regulation, while the laryngeal motor cortex in the ventral fine-tunes for lexical specificity, as revealed by in Mandarin speakers. Disruptions in these pathways, such as in , disproportionately impair tone production and perception over consonants or vowels; for example, Thai and aphasics with Broca's or exhibit reduced accuracy in lexical tone identification (often below 70%) compared to non-tonal elements, underscoring the dedicated neural resources for in tonal systems.

Notation and Transcription

IPA Conventions

The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) employs specific diacritics to denote level tones on or syllabic nuclei, providing a standardized method for across languages. The (´) indicates a high tone, as in [á] for a with high pitch; the (`) marks a low tone, exemplified by [à]; and the macron (¯) represents a mid tone, such as [ā]. These diacritics are positioned above the and are applicable to both phonetic and phonemic representations of tone in languages like Yoruba or Thai. For contour tones, which involve pitch movement within a syllable, the IPA utilizes combined diacritics or sequences of tone letters rather than simple single marks. Combined diacritics include the circumflex (^) for a falling contour, as in [ê], and the caron (ˇ) for a rising contour, such as [ě]; more complex contours, like dipping (falling-rising), may employ stacked diacritics or tone letters (e.g., ˨˩˦). Additionally, Chao tone letters—adopted into the IPA for precise pitch height indication—use right-slanting lines of varying thickness and height: ˥ for high level (equivalent to tone 5), ˧ for mid level (tone 3), and ˩ for low level (tone 1), with contours represented by adjacent letters, such as ˩˥ for rising or ˥˩ for falling. These are typically placed before or after the syllable, as in [˥ma] for high-toned "mother" in certain Sino-Tibetan languages. The symbol ↓ denotes downstep, a lowering of the tone register. Tones in IPA transcription are associated with the syllable's nuclear vowel or , ensuring the or aligns directly with the tone-bearing unit; in scripts with inherent tone marking, such as polytonic orthographies, IPA symbols integrate by overlaying diacritics on the base characters without altering the underlying graphemes. This approach maintains clarity in broad or narrow transcriptions, particularly for languages where tone distinguishes lexical meaning. The current IPA conventions for tone diacritics and letters were standardized during the 1989 Kiel Convention, a major revision of the alphabet that formalized their use for suprasegmental features like tone. This built upon earlier proposals, including numerical and graphical systems for pitch contrasts developed by linguists such as in his 1948 analysis of tonemic structures, which emphasized techniques for identifying level and contour distinctions through substitution tests. The 1989 updates ensured compatibility with Chao's tone letter system, originally proposed in 1930, thereby enhancing the IPA's applicability to tonal languages worldwide.

Comparative Systems

Numbered systems for notating tone contours originated in the Chinese linguistic tradition, particularly through the work of , who developed a five-point scale where 1 represents the lowest pitch level and 5 the highest. This approach allows representation of level tones (e.g., high as 5 or 44) and contours (e.g., rising as 35 or falling as 53) by combining digits to indicate pitch changes over time. In African linguistics, similar numbered scales have been adapted for tonal descriptions in some languages, though diacritics are more common in standard orthographies. Graphical notations provide a visual alternative to symbolic systems, tracing tone contours through lines or curves to depict pitch trajectories. Early linguists employed rudimentary diagrams to illustrate intonation and tone patterns in phonetic studies, predating standardized symbols. Modern tools, such as the software developed by Paul Boersma and David Weenink, enable precise visualization of tone contours by plotting (F0) tracks from acoustic recordings, facilitating detailed analysis in research. Orthographic adaptations integrate tone notation directly into writing systems for specific languages. In Pinyin for Mandarin Chinese, diacritics mark the four main tones: a macron (¯) for the high level tone (e.g., mā 'mother'), an acute accent (´) for the rising tone (e.g., má 'hemp'), a caron (ˇ) for the dipping tone (e.g., mǎ 'horse'), and a grave accent (`) for the falling tone (e.g., mà 'scold'). Thai script uses inherent tone rules based on consonant class and vowel length, supplemented by four diacritic marks—mai ek (low tone mark), mai tho (falling), mai tri (high), and mai chattawa (rising)—to specify one of five tones in syllables. These systems, while practical for specific contexts, have limitations when compared to the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), which uses Chao-inspired tone letters for precise . Numbered scales can be imprecise for complex contours, as they discretize continuous pitch changes and vary across traditions (e.g., Chao's 1-5 versus other regional schemes), leading to ambiguity in cross-linguistic comparisons. Graphical methods, though intuitive, lack standardization for textual documentation, and orthographic marks are language-bound, restricting universality. In linguistic research, the IPA is preferred for its phonetic accuracy and consistency in representing subtle contour variations.

Linguistic Applications

In Phonology

In phonological theory, tone contours are represented within feature geometry as sequences of privative features, typically [high] and [low], linked to tone-bearing units (TBUs) on an autosegmental tier separate from segmental structure. This approach, foundational to autosegmental phonology, treats contours not as monolithic units but as linear combinations of level tones, such as a falling contour analyzed as [high] followed by [low]. For instance, rising and falling contours arise from the association of multiple tone features to a single TBU, allowing for independent behavior of tones relative to segments. Tone rules govern the distribution and alteration of these contours through processes like spreading, deletion, and merging, often observed in sandhi phenomena. Spreading involves the copying of a tone feature to adjacent TBUs, extending a contour across syllables, while deletion removes unattached or redundant tones to resolve conflicts. Merging in sandhi contexts combines adjacent tones into a single contour, and floating tones—unassociated features from historical or morphological sources—can dock to nearby TBUs, triggering these operations. Such rules highlight the dynamic nature of tone representations, where contours emerge from interactions rather than static assignments. Typologically, contour tones are frequently decomposed into underlying level tones in phonological analyses, permitting uniform rules across level and contour systems. This decomposition facilitates accounting for alternations where contours simplify to levels under certain conditions, as explored in African tone systems. In pitch-accent languages, contours interact with , where accent placement may license or restrict contour formation on stressed syllables. A central theoretical debate concerns whether contour tones function as phonemic units or as phonetic interpolations between level targets. Proponents of primitive contours argue for their indivisibility based on unitary behavior in rules like spreading, while decomposition advocates cite evidence from tone stability and simplification, suggesting contours derive from level sequences. This distinction ties to the nature of TBUs, which may be syllables in some languages or morae in others, influencing how contours are licensed and parsed. Evidence from tonal alternations supports decomposition in many cases, though unitary analyses persist where contours resist splitting.

Cross-Language Examples

Mandarin Chinese, a Sino-Tibetan , exemplifies contour tones through its four main tones, which distinguish lexical meaning on monosyllabic words. The high level tone (first tone), marked as mā in , means "mother" and maintains a steady high pitch throughout the . The rising tone (second tone), as in má meaning "," starts mid-low and ascends sharply. The falling-rising tone (third tone), represented by mǎ for "," dips low before rising. The falling tone (fourth tone), seen in mà meaning "scold," descends steeply from high to low pitch. In Yoruba, a Niger-Congo language, the tonal system primarily features three level tones—high, mid, and low—but contours emerge in compounds and phrases due to tonal interactions like spreading. For instance, a low tone followed by a high tone can result in a rising contour (LH) on a single through tone spread. Navajo, an Athabaskan language, restricts rising and falling contours to long s, while short s bear only level high or low tones. Contours arise from tonal spreading, such as a high tone on a prefix combining with a low tone on a stem , resulting in a falling contour on the elongated , as in forms where prefixal high tone influences the stem. Vietnamese, an Austroasiatic language, employs six tones with intricate contours, including the broken tone (hỏi), a falling-rising (dipping) pattern often with a glottal break, and the heavy tone (nặng), a falling contour accompanied by and . Northern Vietnamese realizes these as distinct six-tone contrasts, while Southern Vietnamese merges some realizations, such as hỏi and ngã into a single falling-rising contour, affecting phonetic precision but preserving lexical distinctions. Across families, tone contour complexity varies typologically, with African languages like Yoruba favoring mostly level tones that form simpler contours in sequences, whereas Southeast Asian languages such as Vietnamese and Mandarin exhibit more elaborate, phonemically contrastive contours integral to the lexicon.

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  38. https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/11/16/87/111687437406274019277935778940271661475/CKL_2008_IdeaOfWriting.pdf
  39. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED077289.pdf
  40. http://web.mit.edu/jinzhang/www/pinyin/tones/
  41. https://www.thaialphabet.net/thai-tone-marks/
  42. https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Linguistics/Essentials_of_Linguistics_2e_(Anderson_et_al.)/03:_Phonetics/3.12:_Tone_and_intonation
  43. https://linguistics.ucla.edu/people/keating/Keating_2018_PCCtalk.pdf
  44. https://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~hyman/Privative_Tone_Tokyo_A4.pdf
  45. http://www.ai.mit.edu/projects/dm/theses/goldsmith76.pdf
  46. https://www.jeffreyheinz.net/classes/23S/materials/Hyman-2011-Tone-is-it-different.pdf
  47. https://escholarship.org/content/qt9v01c4vr/qt9v01c4vr.pdf
  48. https://direct.mit.edu/ling/article/50/1/137/717/Autosegmental-Aims-in-Surface-Optimizing-Phonology
  49. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/245232091_Against_contour_tones
  50. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273511222_The_four_tones_of_Mandarin_Chinese_Representation_and_acquisition
  51. https://sail.usc.edu/~lgoldste/ArtPhon/Papers/Laniran_Clements_2003.pdf
  52. https://cos.northeastern.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Jolaade-Okanlawon-An-Analysis-of-Yoruba-with-English.pdf
  53. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233921913_Tone_in_Navajo
  54. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0095447008000454
  55. https://assta.org/proceedings/sst/sst2002/Papers/Nguyen071.pdf
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