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Four pre-reform dengi of the Novgorod Republic (novgorodki), 1420–1478.
A copper denga minted during the reign of Tsar Peter I in 1704.

A denga (Russian: деньга,[a] pl. деньги, dengi) was a Russian monetary unit with a value latterly equal to 1⁄2 kopeck (100 kopecks = 1 Russian ruble). The denga was introduced in the second half of the 14th century during the reign of Dmitry Donskoy.

Etymology

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The Russian word denga is borrowed from Tatar (cf. Chagatay: täŋkä; Kazakh: teŋgä; Mongolian: teŋge; lit. 'small silver coin'). Other proposals made are: Middle Persian: dāng, New Persian: dānag ('coin'), whereas other authors saw the word close to the Turkic word tamga ('mark, stamp').[1]

The plural form of denga, dengi (деньги) has become the usual Russian word for "money".

History

[edit]
Pre-reform kopecks, dengi, and polushki minted during the reign of Tsar Ivan III in the 15th century.

Production of dengi as minted coins began in the middle of the 14th century, during the reign of Dmitry Donskoy.[2] In their earliest form, they were imitations of the silver coinage of the khans of the Golden Horde, usually bearing blundered or meaningless legends. Weighing about a gram, they were prepared by cutting silver wire into measured lengths, beating each length flat, and then striking the resulting blank between two dies. This resulted in slightly elongated coins, often showing traces of the original wire from which they had been taken. From Dmitry Donskoy's time onward, the coins began to take a more Russian form, with depictions of people, animals and Russian legends, although legends partly in Arabic (the official language of the Horde) persisted on some coins until the time of Ivan III.

Dengi were made only in the Russian princedoms; the state of Novgorod and the city of Pskov made their own slightly larger coins. In the Pskov Judicial Charter, the general court fee (podsudnichye) is set to 10 dengi.[3] 220 dengi were equivalent to one ruble and 30 grivny in Pskov.[3]

In 1535, a reform took place, with the northern "novgorodka" being valued at twice the southern denga or "moskovka". In the 1540s novgorodkas depicting a horseman with a spear (Russian kop'yo [копьё]) began to be made, and novgorodkas were thenceforth known as kopecks.[citation needed] The minting of silver dengi seems to have decreased after the 16th century, as they are found less often in hoards, but they are known until the reign of Peter the Great. By that time the coinage had devalued so far that dengi weighed only about 0.14 grams, and were of little practical use. In the coinage reform of 1700 they reappeared as much larger copper coins, and mintage continued, off and on, until 1916, just before the Romanov dynasty was overthrown in 1917.

Coins minted in the 18th century invariably showed the denomination as denga, but during parts of the 19th century this was replaced by the word denezhka, the diminutive form of denga. Later still the denomination was shown simply as 1⁄2 kopeck.

Post-reform silver denga mintage

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Silver dengi were not minted during the last years of Feodor I's rule, nor during the Time of Troubles, though silver wire kopecks were minted throughout this period, including emissions by imposters and invaders.[4]

Copper denga mintage

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During the time of Peter the Great, dengi transitioned from silver to copper, and from undated to Byzantine dates in Cyrillic to Julian dates in Cyrillic. After Peter's reign, dates were denoted using the common notation of Arabic numerals.

See also

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Notes

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References

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Sources

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Denga

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from Grokipedia
The denga (Russian: деньга) was a historical Russian monetary unit and coin, primarily made of silver in its early forms, introduced in the second half of the 14th century as one of the first indigenous coins minted by Russian principalities amid efforts to assert economic independence from the Golden Horde. It served as the basic unit of currency in regions like Moscow, Ryazan, and Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod, deriving its name possibly from the Mongolian "tengah" but evolving independently as a symbol of sovereignty. Initially weighing between 0.5 and 1.0 grams of silver and often irregular in shape, the denga featured varying designs, including equestrian figures of rulers and bilingual Russian-Tatar inscriptions, introduced under Ivan III in the late , to facilitate trade in Volga regions such as the . It was subdivided into smaller units such as the poludenga (half-denga) and chetverets (quarter-denga), and in some areas, pulo coins supplemented it for minor transactions. By the 1534 monetary reform under , the denga was standardized within a broader system where 200 dengi equaled one , laying the groundwork for Russia's currency framework. In the 16th and 17th centuries, under rulers like , the denga's designs became more uniform, depicting the tsar as "Tsar and Grand Prince of All " with a mounted lancer, reflecting centralized authority. Its value stabilized at half a (with 100 kopecks equaling one ) during Peter the Great's reforms (1700–1704), when silver production ceased in the 1690s and versions were minted from 1701 until 1828. The term "denga" also entered everyday language as the plural "dengi," meaning "" in modern Russian, underscoring its enduring cultural impact.

Etymology and Terminology

Origins of the Name

The term "denga" for the Russian denomination originates from the Tatar word täŋkä (also spelled täŋge or tenga), which referred to a small silver used in the and Central Asian monetary systems during the medieval period. This borrowing reflects the profound influence of Mongol-Tatar rule on Russian economic and linguistic development, as the term entered Russian usage through interactions with the Horde's coinage practices. The word was initially adopted in the Russian principalities in the 14th century amid the Mongol-Tatar yoke, marking a period when local rulers began minting their own silver coins influenced by Horde standards. In the 14th century, "denga" denoted a basic small silver coin unit. The term "kopek" (from kop'yo, "lance," due to the equestrian design on later coins) was introduced in the 1530s, after which the denga's value stabilized at half a kopeck. Over time, its plural form evolved into the modern Russian dengi meaning "money."

Evolution of the Term

Following its adoption in the , the term "denga," originally denoting a specific denomination of Tatar origin, underwent a significant linguistic shift in Russian usage. By the , the plural form "dengi" had broadened beyond its numismatic specificity to serve as the general word for "" in everyday , reflecting the coin's widespread circulation and cultural integration. In the 18th and 19th centuries, variant spellings of the term emerged in official imperial documents and coin inscriptions, adapting to evolving . The form "den'ga," featuring a for phonetic accuracy, appeared on minted coins from 1796 to 1828 under rulers including Catherine II, Paul I, Alexander I, and Nicholas I, distinguishing it from the earlier "denga" used in pre-imperial contexts. The term also influenced expressions in Russian, particularly for smaller denominations. "Denezhka," a direct of "denga," was applied to low-value copper coins equivalent to half a , minted between 1849 and 1867 during the reigns of Nicholas I and Alexander II, highlighting the word's adaptability to describe minor currency in imperial . Despite the discontinuation of denga coins as a circulating by the mid-19th century, the term has endured in numismatic and catalogs, where it remains a standard descriptor for historical Russian coinage types across medieval and imperial periods.

Historical Development

Introduction and Early Silver Coins (14th–15th Centuries)

The denga emerged as a small in the mid-14th century, marking the revival of independent coinage in the Rus principalities after a prolonged hiatus that had begun in the , during which silver ingots known as hryvnias served as the primary monetary medium. This resumption was closely tied to the rising political and economic power of under (r. 1359–1389), whose victory at the in 1380 against the bolstered Moscow's authority and enabled the principality to assert greater autonomy through its own minting. The term "denga" itself derived from Tatar-Mongol influences during the period of Horde dominance, reflecting the cultural exchanges that shaped early Rus monetary practices. The first dengas were minted in after 1380, imitating the silver coins of the , often featuring Arabic inscriptions such as the name of Khan Tokhtamish on the reverse to signify nominal subservience. These early coins were produced using a distinctive "wire money" technique: silver wire was annealed, cut into measured lengths, flattened into irregular, scale-like blanks, and then struck with simple dies, resulting in thin, elongated pieces that varied significantly in shape and quality due to rudimentary minting technology. Weights typically ranged from 0.53 to 1.3 grams, with an initial average around 1 gram, emphasizing the denga's role as a low-value unit for everyday transactions amid the economic fragmentation of the principalities. By the 1420s, denga production had spread to other Rus principalities, including Novgorod, Pskov, Tver, Ryazan, and Nizhny Novgorod-Suzdal, as local rulers sought to symbolize their and facilitate regional in the wake of weakening Mongol oversight. For instance, Pskov initiated its own coinage in 1425, underscoring the act of minting as a marker of political in medieval Rus. This proliferation reinforced Moscow's centralizing influence, as the denga became a common denominator in inter-principality exchanges, contributing to the gradual economic consolidation that paved the way for dominance.

Standardization and Reforms (16th Century)

In the late 15th century, Muscovite grand princes, particularly Ivan III (r. 1462–1505), initiated efforts to standardize silver denga coinage following the conquest of Novgorod in 1478, which brought diverse regional minting practices under central control. This unification enforced uniform types across conquered territories, with the horseman design emerging as the dominant "Moscow Arms" motif on dengas, replacing varied local symbols and legends to symbolize authority. Bilingual Russian-Arabic inscriptions, such as "This is a denga of ," gradually transitioned to Russian-only text, reflecting the consolidation of power and the end of Mongol influence on coinage. A significant occurred in 1534 under the regency of , mother of the young Ivan IV, aiming to create a unified system across Moscovy, Novgorod, and on a basis. This distinguished the heavier northern "novgorodka" denga, valued at twice the standard southern "moskovka," with the novgorodka weighing approximately 0.68 grams and featuring a rider-with-spear design that later inspired the term "kopeyka." The novgorodka, used in northern regions, was valued at twice the moskovka, resulting in 100 novgorodka or 200 moskovka equaling one . Old silver coins were demonetized to enforce the new standards, promoting and reducing regional disparities in value and production. Upon assuming full power in 1547, Ivan IV (r. 1547–1584) further centralized coinage through decrees that standardized denga designs, incorporating the title " and of All " alongside the mounted lancer motif to assert imperial over unified Russian lands. This typological uniformity extended production to multiple mints while maintaining the novgorodka's heavier weight and the moskovka's lighter 0.34 grams, both struck in .960 fine silver from wire blanks. The reforms solidified the denga as a key unit in the ruble system, where 100 novgorodka dengi (or 200 moskovka dengi) equaled one . By the late 16th century, prolonged conflicts like the (1558–1583) and the policies exacerbated economic pressures, including reliance on imported silver due to domestic shortages, leading to a gradual decline in the silver dengas' quality and weight consistency across mints. This debasement reflected broader fiscal strains, with actual weights sometimes falling below the nominal 0.34 grams for moskovkas amid inflation and supply disruptions.

Transition to Copper and Imperial Era (17th–19th Centuries)

The 17th century marked a period of decline for silver denga minting in Russia, exacerbated by the political instability of the (1598–1613), during which regular coin production was severely disrupted and the last significant silver issues occurred around the early 1600s. Although a brief experiment with dengas was attempted in 1654 under Alexei Mikhailovich to fund military campaigns amid silver shortages, this innovation triggered and the Copper Riot of 1662, leading to the withdrawal of copper coins and a return to silver kopecks and dengas. Silver production resumed but remained limited, setting the stage for a more enduring shift to base metals as economic pressures mounted. Peter the Great's monetary reforms of 1700–1704 fundamentally transformed Russian coinage by establishing a system based on the , subdivided into 100 , and reintroducing as the primary material for low-value denominations to address ongoing silver scarcity and support state finances during the . The denga was retained as a unit equivalent to 1/2 , now struck in , with pieces weighing approximately 4-5 g by the end of his reign, reflecting the lighter standards adopted for small change in the new imperial economy. These reforms centralized minting, incorporated European techniques like machine striking, and laid the foundation for 's dominance in everyday transactions throughout the imperial era. Copper denga production persisted robustly under the succeeding monarchs of the , including Empress Anna (1730–1740), who oversaw continued issuance from and regional mints to stabilize circulation; Elizabeth (1741–1762), whose reign saw expanded output amid post-war recovery; and Catherine II (1762–1796), who maintained the denomination while introducing minor variants, such as the orthographically updated "den'ga" in to denote the 1/2 value more explicitly. These issues, typically weighing around 3–5 g in , supported growing and urban economies without the volatility of earlier copper experiments. Into the , the denga remained a staple of Russian copper coinage under Alexander I (1801–1825), who issued it alongside silver and gold to finance the and imperial expansion, and Nicholas I (1825–1855), whose administrations produced series until 1828 for certain types, though the denomination continued in later reforms until the early 20th century. By this point, the coin, still valued at 1/2 and struck at major mints like St. Petersburg, had become standardized at about 3.7 g, but mounting pressures from proliferation and the need for monetary unification led to its eventual phase-out, supplanted by reformed kopeck fractions in the broader shift toward a silver-based standard.

Design and Physical Characteristics

Silver Denga Designs

The silver denga, a small hammered struck from silver wire blanks, featured irregular, oblong shapes typically measuring 9-15 in length during its early production phases. These coins were cut from rolled silver wire and struck without prior , resulting in uneven that often distorted motifs and inscriptions. By the , flans became slightly more regularized, though still hand-hammered and prone to irregular edges. In the early 14th to 15th centuries, designs closely imitated the silver dirhams of the Golden Horde, with obverses often bearing blundered or meaningless Arabic-style legends in pseudo-Kufic script, reflecting limited understanding of Islamic calligraphy among Russian minters. Reverses similarly featured garbled Arabic inscriptions, sometimes incorporating geometric arabesques or simple decorative elements. As Russian principalities asserted independence, motifs evolved to include animal figures such as roosters or falcons, alongside human elements like horsemen or hunt scenes, transitioning to more distinctly Slavic iconography by the late 15th century. For instance, coins of Dmitry Donskoy (1359–1389) displayed a rooster facing right with an arabesque on the obverse and Arabic legend on the reverse, while those of Vasily I (1389–1425) introduced bilingual Russian-Arabic elements to signify sovereignty. Inscriptions shifted to Cyrillic, reading phrases like "Seal of Grand Prince [Name]" or "Grand Prince of All Russia," often abbreviated due to space constraints. By the 16th century, under rulers like Ivan III (1462–1505) and Ivan IV (1533–1584), silver dengas standardized around the mounted rider motif, known as the "Moscow Arms." The obverse depicted a lancer or horseman advancing right, brandishing a or while on a galloping , symbolizing ; mint marks, such as "M" for , appeared beneath the horse's hooves. The reverse bore multi-line Cyrillic inscriptions with titles like "Князь Великий Иван" ( Ivan), emphasizing the ruler's dominion. This design originated in Novgorod with the heavier novgorodka variant, valued at twice the lighter moskovka and weighing approximately 0.8 g compared to 0.4 g, both at around 96% silver purity before debasement. The 1535 reform under briefly reinforced this typology, distinguishing northern novgorodki from southern moskovki. Post-16th century production saw progressive , with silver content declining and becoming thinner and lighter, often under 0.5 g by the early amid economic pressures. Motifs simplified to cruder renderings of the rider and abbreviated titles, losing detail on irregular blanks as minting decentralized during the . By the reign of (1682–1725), silver dengas were minuscule wire pieces with faint, stylized horsemen, marking the end of their prominence before full transition to milled copper equivalents.

Copper Denga Designs

The copper denga was first introduced in 1730 under Anna I as part of Russia's 18th-century shift to machine-struck base-metal coinage—following Peter the Great's introduction of minting machinery around 1700—featuring round inscribed with the denomination "denga" or "denezhka" and later crowned imperial monograms under rulers such as Catherine II from 1763. These early issues marked a departure from earlier hammered styles, emphasizing uniformity in shape and imperial symbolism to reflect the expanding minting capabilities of the . Obverse designs typically showcased the ruler's portrait, monogram, or the imperial double-headed eagle, while reverses bore the value, date, and mint marks, often with simple Cyrillic lettering for clarity in everyday circulation. For instance, the 1749 issues under Elizabeth featured a plain double-headed eagle on the obverse and a cartouche enclosing "ДЕ НГА 1749" on the reverse, prioritizing legibility over elaborate motifs. Under Catherine II, obverses displayed her crowned monogram (e.g., "Е II" or "I E II"), sometimes within a wreath, paired with reverses depicting St. George slaying the dragon and lettering such as "Е М ДЕНГА" for the Ekaterinburg Mint. Similarly, Paul I's dengas from 1797-1801 used a crowned "П I" monogram on the obverse and "1. ДЕНЬГА" with date and mint mark (e.g., "Е.М.") on the reverse. In the 19th century, copper dengas underwent refinements for standardization, typically measuring 21–25 mm in diameter and weighing around 5 g in earlier examples under Paul I, though later variants under Alexander I trended smaller at 3–4 g to conserve metal amid economic pressures. These coins included practical varieties, such as holed examples pierced for suspension as jewelry or amulets, reflecting their dual role in trade and personal adornment among rural populations. Mint marks like "ЕМ" (Ekaterinburg), "АМ" (Anninsky), or "КМ" (Suzun) appeared consistently, aiding in attribution and quality control across imperial mints. Late variants from 1796 to 1828, often labeled "den'ga," incorporated more ornate borders under Paul I and Alexander I, enhancing aesthetic appeal while maintaining functional simplicity. Paul I's issues featured threadlike edges and monogram-focused designs enclosed in subtle laurel motifs, while Alexander I's 1810-1828 dengas displayed a crowned on the obverse with date below, and reverses with a starred value "ДЕНЬГА" within a decorative wreath, sometimes framed by reeded borders for anti-clipping measures. These elements underscored the evolution toward neoclassical influences in Russian , balancing imperial prestige with needs.

Mintage and Production

Major Mints and Rulers

The production of silver dengas in medieval was primarily centered in under (r. 1359–1389), who initiated the minting of these small silver coins around the mid-14th century to assert economic independence from the . 's mint became the dominant facility, producing standardized wire-cut silver dengas weighing approximately 0.3–0.8 grams, often featuring equestrian figures or simple inscriptions. Other regional mints, such as those in Novgorod and , operated semi-independently during this period, issuing local variants to support trade in northern territories. Under subsequent rulers like Vasily I (r. 1389–1425) and Ivan III (r. 1462–1505), Moscow remained the primary mint, with production expanding to include bilingual Russian-Tatar dengas after the 1487 campaign against to facilitate circulation in the . Tver's mint, active under Boris Alexandrovich (r. 1425–1461), produced distinct silver dengas before its incorporation into Muscovite control, marking a brief era of princely autonomy in coinage. Novgorod and continued as secondary mints, striking "Novgorodka" and similar types until their subjugation by Ivan III in the 1470s–1490s. By the , denga production centralized further in under Ivan IV (r. 1533–1584), following monetary reforms in 1535–1538 that standardized the coin's weight and design, often depicting a mounted rider with a saber. The mint dominated output to fund campaigns, while smaller facilities in and Novgorod contributed limited runs before consolidation. Ekaterinburg did not emerge as a mint until the early , postdating this silver era. The transition to copper dengas in the imperial period saw St. Petersburg and Ekaterinburg as the dominant mints, beginning with reforms under Peter the Great, who initiated wire-cut copper dengas around 1701–1718 primarily at the Moscow mint. Under Empress Anna (r. 1730–1740), the St. Petersburg mint produced the bulk of copper dengas (equivalent to ½ kopeck, weighing about 8 grams), with Ekaterinburg handling significant secondary output from 1730 onward to meet rising demand. Elizabeth (r. 1741–1762) continued this pattern, with notable 1748 issues from the Ekaterinburg mint featuring a double-headed eagle obverse and value inscription reverse. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, and St. Petersburg mints oversaw the final major runs of copper dengas from 1796 to 1828, under Catherine II (r. 1762–1796, late issues), Paul I (r. 1796–1801), and Alexander I (r. 1801–1825). These facilities struck pieces weighing approximately 5 grams with designs, prioritizing uniformity as the denga's role diminished in favor of decimalized kopecks. Ekaterinburg supported production sporadically, but and St. Petersburg handled the core output for imperial distribution.

Variants and Subtypes

Following the 1535 in , silver were categorized into two primary subtypes based on regional standards: the moskovka, a standard-weight prevalent in southern regions, and the novgorodka, a heavier northern variant valued at twice the moskovka's weight to account for local economic differences. These subtypes facilitated trade unification while preserving regional minting practices until further standardization in the . Copper dengas emerged as a distinct category after the shift from silver in the early . Early examples include the wire money dengas issued under Peter I around 1700, which were hand-struck from drawn silver or wire, often featuring simple designs like a horseman or scales to reflect the transitional coinage technology. Mid-18th-century subtypes introduced practical modifications, typically weighing around 6-9 grams and depicting a crowned . Later issues, like the 1763 monogram types under Catherine II, featured a crowned imperial dividing the date within a on the obverse and Saint George slaying the dragon on the reverse, marking a more refined neoclassical style. Rare variants of dengas highlight production anomalies and historical influences. Early silver examples often included blundered legends, where imitative inscriptions mimicked but garbled Arabic scripts, resulting from the initial reliance on Tatar coin prototypes in the 14th-15th centuries. Overstruck pieces, particularly from principalities like under rulers such as Fyodorovich (1427-1456), were frequently produced by restriking dirhams, preserving underlying host coin features beneath Russian designs like tamgas or quadrupeds. In the , issues from 1796-1828 under I and I adhered to standards around 5 grams, often bearing the explicit "ДЕНЬГА" . Numismatic classifications underscore the diversity of dengas, with comprehensive catalogs documenting over 200 distinct silver types from before 1700, encompassing variations in rulers, mints, and across principalities. For copper dengas spanning 1730-1828, more than 50 subtypes are recognized, including die varieties and mint-specific issues; for instance, the 1748 emission alone features 11 collector-recognized varieties based on eagle details and lettering styles.

Economic Role and Discontinuation

Value and Usage

The denga held a consistent nominal value equivalent to half a throughout much of its circulation, with two dengi comprising one . This established it as a fundamental small-denomination unit in the Russian . Equivalences included six dengi equaling one altyn, based on the standard of three per altyn, and 200 dengi corresponding to one prior to the early 18th-century reforms. In regional variations, such as in , 220 dengi were equivalent to one , reflecting local accounting adjustments like 30 grivny to a . In daily transactions, the silver denga facilitated small-scale trade and local exchanges during the , marking the end of the earlier "coinless period" and enabling more widespread use of coined in principalities like . By the 18th and 19th centuries, copper dengi became integral to petty commerce, serving as a low-value medium for everyday purchases and minor economic activities due to its accessibility and subdivision role. The term "dengi," the plural of denga, evolved into the modern Russian word for , underscoring its pervasive role in routine economic life. The denga played a key role in systems, initially integrated into grivna-based frameworks where the served as a primary derived from earlier silver weight standards; over time, equivalences shifted, with one aligning to 20 dengi in later standards via the ten-kopeck grivna. It later transitioned into the decimal kopeck-ruble structure, maintaining its utility as a fractional component for precise in and taxation. Debasement significantly affected the silver denga during its early prominence, with frequent clipping and gradual reductions in weight—often due to silver scarcity—eroding its intrinsic value by the and prompting reforms to stabilize the ; this contributed to and reduced confidence in the . These practices, common in coinage, diminished the real of the denga despite its fixed nominal relations.

End of Circulation

The silver denga ceased production in the early through Peter the Great's monetary reforms of 1704, which overhauled the outdated silver-based system by introducing a coinage structure with the as the key subunit and fully replacing traditional silver denominations like the denga. This shift aligned Russian currency with international standards, debasing and standardizing silver content while prioritizing higher-value coins over small silver units. Copper dengas, valued at half a , persisted longer and were minted until 1916 under Tsar at the Mint, marking the final imperial issue before the monarchy's collapse. Post-1917 Revolution, these coins lost official status amid economic upheaval but remained in limited use until the Soviet monetary reforms of 1922–1924 systematically demonetized imperial currency, including copper fractions like the denga, to stabilize and introduce the chervonets-backed . Within the kopeck framework, the denga had long been fixed at half a since Peter the Great's era, facilitating its integration before full obsolescence. The 1920s redenomination completed their withdrawal by exchanging old coins at devalued rates and phasing out pre-revolutionary types entirely. Although no longer , surviving dengas are now collected as numismatic artifacts for their in Russian coinage evolution. The term "dengi," the form derived from "denga," endures in modern Russian as colloquial slang for .

References

  1. https://treasures.kreml.ru/en-Us/showcase-4/view/russkie-monety-kontsa-xiv--nachala-xvi-veka/
  2. https://www.moneymuseum.com/pdf/yesterday/05_Modern_Times/51_The%20Russian%20Monetary%20System%20from%20the%20Kievan%20Empire%20to%201897.pdf
  3. https://s155239215.onlinehome.us/turkic/btn_Coins/Russian_Monetary_systemEn.htm
  4. http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/russian/const/money.html
  5. https://unicode.org/L2/L2011/11273r-russian-currency.pdf
  6. https://www.dema-coins.com/2023/05/denga-coin-Russian-Empire.html
  7. http://s155239215.onlinehome.us/turkic/btn_Coins/Russian_Monetary_systemEn.htm
  8. https://www.ijors.net/issue5_2_2016/pdf/__www.ijors.net_issue5_2_2016_article_1_cicek.pdf
  9. https://www.moneymuseum.com/pdf/yesterday/05_Modern_Times/51_The%2520Russian%2520Monetary%2520System%2520from%2520the%2520Kievan%2520Empire%2520to%25201897.pdf
  10. http://www.chicagocoinclub.org/projects/PiN/ecm.html
  11. https://www.dema-coins.com/2023/03/denezhka-coin-Russian-Empire.html
  12. https://goznak.ru/en/about/history/1/
  13. https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/denga
  14. https://www.mos.ru/en/news/item/81152073/
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  16. https://en.numista.com/28353
  17. https://www.pcgs.com/auctionprices/item/russia-1-2-kopek-denga-1911-cnb-st-petersburg-mint-nicholas-ii-ngc-proof-63-brown/408135/-6074299337520821455
  18. https://en.numista.com/121004
  19. https://www.invaluable.com/auction-lot/russian-silver-kopek-coin-0-48-g-ivan-iv-the-terr-668-c-dae4686965
  20. https://en.numista.com/11217
  21. https://forgeofempiressite.wordpress.com/2017/07/29/russian-coins-800-years-of-history/
  22. https://www.si.edu/object/1-denga-catherine-ii-russia-1763%253Anmah_1440114
  23. https://www.coins-auctioned.com/products/denga-anna-ivan-vi-elizabeth-russian-empire-1749-copper-23431
  24. https://en.numista.com/90867
  25. https://en.numista.com/20818
  26. https://katzauction.com/lot/601920
  27. https://www.etsy.com/market/denga_coin
  28. https://en.numista.com/90949
  29. https://treasures.kreml.ru/en-Us/showcase-4/view/russkie-monety--xvi-xvii-vekov/
  30. https://kyiv2014.com/wire.html
  31. https://www.vcoins.com/en/stores/numiscorner/239/product/coin_russia_elizabeth_denga_12_kopek_1748__copper_km188/957227/Default.aspx
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  36. https://en.numista.com/catalogue/russia_1.html
  37. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323848049_The_Soviets_monetary_experience_1917-_1924_through_the_perspective_of_the_discussion_on_unity_and_diversity_of_money
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