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Steel grades
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Steel grades are grades used to classify various steels by their composition and physical properties. Steel grades have been developed by a number of standards organizations.

Steel grades standards by country

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Note that an increasing number of national European standards (DIN, AFNOR, UNE, UNI, etc.) and UK standards are being withdrawn and replaced by European Standards (EN). This task is carried out by the Comité Européen de Normalisation (CEN) (European Committee for Standardization).

European standard steel grades

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EN 10027-1 steel grade designation system.

European standard steel grade names fall into two categories:[1]

  1. Steel specified by purpose of use and mechanical properties.
  2. Steel specified by chemical composition.

The inclusion of a letter 'G' before the code indicates the steel is specified in the form of a casting.

Category 1: Steel specified by purpose of use and mechanical properties

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Basic grade designations for category 1 steels consist of a single letter (designating application) then a number signifying the mechanical property (often yield strength) dictated in the standard for that application designation. For some application designations another letter is included before the property value, this number is used to indicate any special requirements or conditions. These additional letters and values depend entirely on the application of the steel and are specified in the standard and far too numerous to mention here.

The next set of 3 digits gives the steel's minimum yield strength. So S355 has a minimum yield strength of 355 MPa for the smallest thickness range covered by the relevant standard – i.e. EN10025.[2]

Below is a table indicating the most common application codes.

Application symbol Meaning Mechanical Property Details
S Structural steel Minimum Yield Strength
P Steel for pressure lines and vessels Minimum Yield Strength
L Steel for pipe and tube Minimum Yield Strength
E Engineering steels Minimum Yield Strength
B Steel for reinforced concrete Characteristic Yield Case
R Steel for rail use Minimum Yield Case
H High Tensile Strength Flat products Minimum Yield Case If followed by T then the given mechanical property is minimum tensile strength
D Flat Products for Cold Forming Followed by C, D or X and two numbers characterising steel
T Tinmill Products Nominal Yield Case
M Electrical Steel Number = 100 × specific loss in W/kg

Number = 100 × nom thick in mm

Letter for type of product (A, K, P or S[3])

Additional symbols

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In addition to the above category codes there are symbols that can be added to the grade code to identify any additional compositional requirements, delivery conditions, mechanical properties, &c. These values depend solely on the type/application code given in the first part of the code and are so numerous as to be impossible to indicate here. Additional symbols are separated from the main code by the plus sign (+).

The most common additional symbols are the impact and temperature codes for structural steels, category 1 - Sxxx.

Impact Resistance Temperature
Impact
code		 Testing
strength		 Temperature
code		 Testing
temperature
J 27 J R Room temperature
K 40 J 0 0 °C
L 60 J 2 -20 °C
3 -30 °C
4 -40 °C
5 -50 °C
6 -60 °C

Example : S355J2

Delivery condition codes are also relatively common, the most common being:

Code Condition
A Annealed
QT Quenched and tempered
N Normalised
SR Stress relieved
C Cold worked
U Untreated
G Deoxidated

Example : S355J2+N

Electrical steel

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Electrical steel type of product letters (bold are most recent version 2016):

Code Maximum specific loss

expressed for magnetic induction

Type of product
A 1.5 T @50 Hz non oriented
D (formerly B) " non-alloy semi-finished (not finally annealed)
E " alloy semi-finished (not finally annealed)
K (=D+E) " non-alloy and alloy electrical steel sheet/strip in the semi-processed state
N " for normal grain oriented products
P 1.7 T @50 Hz high permeability grain oriented
S " conventional grain oriented

Standard per steel name

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According to EN 10027-1

Application Mechanical

property

additional symbol Standard
S 235 JR EN 10025-2
355 JR EN 10025-2
J0 EN 10025-2
J2 EN 10025-2
K2 EN 10025-2
N EN 10025-3
NL EN 10025-3
450 J0 EN 10025-2
P 265 GH EN 10028-2
NB EN 10120
355 NH EN 10028-3
M EN 10028-5
ML1 EN 10028-5
Q EN 10028-6

Category 2: Steel specified by chemical composition

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In addition to the descriptive steel grade naming system indicated above, within EN 10027-2 is defined a system for creating unique steel grade numbers. While less descriptive and intuitive than the grand names they are easier to tabulate and use in data processing applications.

The number is in the following format: x.yyzz(zz)
Where x is the material type (only 1 is specified so far), yy is the steel group number (specified in EN10027-2) and zz(zz) is a sequential number designated by the certifying body, the number in brackets being unused but reserved for later use.

The steel groups are indicated below:

Code Type
Non-alloy steels
00 & 90 Basic steels
0x & 9x Quality steels
1x Special steels
Alloy steels
2x Tool steels
3x Miscellaneous steels
4x Stainless and heat resistant steels
5x – 8x Structural, pressure vessel and engineering steels
08 & 98 Special physical properties
09 & 99 Other purpose steels

The current certification body is the VDEh in Düsseldorf, Germany.

Comparisons

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Below is a table comparing steel grades from different grading systems.

Comparison of steel grades by chemistry[4][5][6]
EN steel number
(Europe)		 EN steel name
(Europe)		 ASTM grade
(USA)		 AISI/SAE grade
(USA)		 UNS
(USA)		 DIN
(Germany)		 BS
(UK)		 UNI
(Italy)		 JIS
(Japan)
Carbon steels
1.1141
1.0401
1.0453		 C15D
C18D		 1010
1018		 CK15
C15
C16.8		 040A15
080M15
080A15
EN3B		 C15
C16
1C15		 S12C
S15
S15CK
S15C
1.0503
1.1191
1.1193
1.1194		 C45 1045[7] C45
CK45
CF45
CQ45		 060A47
080A46
080M46		 C45
1C45
C46
C43		 S45C
S48C
1.0726
1.0727		 35S20
45S20		 1140/1146 35S20
45S20		 212M40
En8M
1.0715
1.0736		 11SMn37 1215 9SMn28
9SMn36		 230M07
En1A		 CF9SMn28
CF9SMn36		 SUM 25
SUM 22
1.0718
1.0737		 11SMnPb30
11SMnPb37		 12L14 9SMnPb28
9SMnPb36		 230M07 Leaded
En1B Leaded		 CF9SMnPb29
CF9SMnPb36		 SUM 22
SUM 23
SUM 24
1.1555 C120U C125W BW1C C120KU SK2
Alloy steels
1.7218 4130 25CrMo4
GS-25CrMo4		 708A30
CDS110		 25CrMo4 (KB)
30CrMo4		 SCM 420
SCM 430
SCCrM1
1.7223
1.7225
1.7227
1.3563		 42CrMo4 4140/4142 41CrMo4
42CrMo4
42CrMoS4
43CrMo4		 708M40
708A42
709M40
En19
En19C		 41CrMo4
38CrMo4 (KB)
G40 CrMo4
42CrMo4		 SCM 440
SCM 440H
SNB 7
SCM 4M
SCM 4
1.6582
1.6562		 34CrNiMo6 4340 34CrNiMo6
40NiCrMo8-4		 817M40
En24		 35NiCrMo6 (KB)
40NiCrMo7 (KB)		 SNCM 447
SNB24-1-5
1.6543
1.6523		 20NiCrMo2-2 8620 21NiCrMo22
21NiCrMo2		 805A20
805M20		 20NiCrMo2 SNCM 200 (H)
1.5415 16Mo3 A204 A/B/C K12822
K12320
K12020
K11820		 15Mo3 1503-243B
240
243		 15Mo3
16Mo3		 STBA12
Stainless steels
1.4310 X10CrNi18-8 301[8] S30100
1.4318 X2CrNiN18-7 301LN
1.4305 X8CrNiS18-9 303 S30300 X10CrNiS18-9 303S 31
En58M		 X10CrNiS18-09 SUS 303
1.4301 X2CrNi19-11
X2CrNi18-10		 304[8] S30400 X5CrNi18-9
X5CrNi18-10
XCrNi19-9		 304S 15
304S 16
304S 18
304S 25
En58E		 X5CrNi18-10 SUS 304
SUS 304-CSP
1.4306 X2CrNi19-11 304L S30403 304S 11 SUS304L
1.4311 X2CrNiN18-10 304LN S30453
1.4948 X6CrNi18-11 304H S30409
1.4303 X5CrNi18-12 305 S30500
1.4401
1.4436		 X5CrNiMo17-12-2
X5CrNiMo18-14-3		 316[8] S31600 X5CrNiMo17 12 2
X5CrNiMo17 13 3
X5CrNiMo 19 11
X5CrNiMo 18 11		 316S 29
316S 31
316S 33
En58J		 X5CrNiMo17 12
X5CrNiMo17 13
X8CrNiMo17 13		 SUS 316
SUS316TP
1.4404 X2CrNiMo17-12-2 316L S31603 316S 11 SUS316L
1.4406
1.4429		 X2CrNiMoN17-12-2
X2CrNiMoN17-13-3		 316LN S31653
1.4462 X2CrNiMoN22.5.3 S31803

S32205

X2CrNiMoN22.5.3
1.4571 316Ti S31635 X6CrNiMoTi17-12 320S 33
1.4438 X2CrNiMo18-15-4 317L S31703
1.4541 321 S32100 X6CrNiTi18-10 321S 31 SUS321
1.4848 GX40CrNiSi25-20 A351 HK40 J94204 SEW 595 GX40CrNiSi25-20 310C40 SCH22
1.4859 GX10NiCrSiNb32-20 N08151 GX10NiCrSiNb32-20
1.4878 X12CrNiTi18-9
X8CrNiTi18-10		 321H S32109
1.4906 X7CrNiNb18-10 347H S34709
1.4512 X6CrTi12 409 S40900 SUH409
410 S41000
1.4016 430 S43000 X6Cr17 430S 17 SUS430
440A S44002
1.4112 440B S44003
1.4125 440C S44004 X105CrMo17 SUS440C
1.4104 430F S44020 X14CrMoS17 SUS430F
1.4057 X17CrNi16-2 431 X[9] S43100 X16CrNi16 431S 29 SUS431
1.5423 16Mo5 A335 P1 4520
4419H
4419		 K11522 16Mo5 STPA12
1.7715 14MoV6-3 A335 P2 K11547 14MoV6-3 660 STPA20
1.7335
1.7338		 13CrMo4-5
10CrMo5-5		 A335 P11 K11597 STPA23
1.7375
1.7380
1.7383		 10CrMo9-10
11CrMo9-10
12CrMo9-10		 A335 P22 K21590 17175 10CrMo910 STPA24
1.7362
1.7366		 X11CrMo5
X12CrMo5
12CrMo19-5		 A335 P5 501
502		 K41545
S50100
S50200		 STPA25
1.7386 X11CrMo9-1
X12CrMo9-1		 A335 P9 503 S50400
S50488
K90941		 STPA26
1.4903 X10CrMoVNbN9-1 A335 P91 K91560 X10CrMoVNbN9-1
1.4905
1.4906		 X11CrMoWVNb9-1-1
X12CrMoWVNbN10-1-1		 A335 P92 K92460 X11CrMoWVNb9-1-1
X12CrMoWVNbN10-1-1
1.4539 X1NiCrMoCu25-20-5 904L N08904
1.4547 X1CrNiMoCuN20-18-7 S31254
1.4565 NIT50 S20910
NIT60 S21800
Tool steels
1.2363 X100CrMoV5 A-2 T30102[10] X100CrMoV51 BA 2 X100CrMoV5-1 KU SKD 12
A-3 T30103[11]
A-4 T30104[12]
A-6 T30106[13]
A-7 T30107[14]
A-8 T30108[15]
A-9 T30109[16]
1.2365 X32CrMoV3-3
32CrMoV12-28		 H10 T20810 X32CrMoV3-3
32CrMoV12-28		 SKD 7
1.2379 X153CrMoV12 D-2 X153CrMoV12-1 BD 2 X155CrVMo12-1 SKD 11
1.2510 O-1 100MnCrW4 Bo 1 95MnWCr-5 KU

American Petroleum Institute (API) steel grades

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The American Petroleum Institute has a standardized steel grading system for various properties of steel composites.[17]

Color coding

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In order to clearly distinguish the steel grade, tubing, casing and its coupling should be painted with color codes respectively. Color bands should be painted on tubing and casing body longer than 600mm to either end. The whole outer-body of the coupling needs to be painted color and then color codes.

Steel Grade Coupling Tubular Body
API Tubing and Casing H40 None None or black band at the manufacturer's option
J55 all green. one green band
K55 all green two green bands
N80-1 all red one red band
N80-Q all red + one green band one red band + one green band
L80-1 all red + one brown band one red band + one brown band
L80-9Cr colorless + two yellow bands one red band + one brown band + two yellow bands
L80-13Cr colorless + one yellow band one red band + one brown band + one yellow band
C90-1 all purple one purple band
T95-1 all silver one silver band
C110 all white + two brown bands one white band + two brown bands
P110 all white one white band
Q125 all orange one orange band

API 5B and 5CT provide various steel grades and color codes of each grade, with general information of casing and tubing.

References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Steel grades

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Steel grades are standardized classifications that define the , mechanical , metallurgical characteristics, and intended uses of various alloys, enabling precise specification and in and applications. These grades encompass thousands of variations, with over 3,500 distinct types identified based on factors such as carbon content, alloying elements, and processes. The primary categories of steel grades include carbon steels, which comprise about 90% of global steel production and are subdivided into low-carbon (up to 0.3% carbon, e.g., mild steels like ASTM A36), medium-carbon (0.3–0.6% carbon), and high-carbon (over 0.6% carbon) variants valued for their strength and . Alloy steels incorporate elements like , , or (typically 1–50% total alloys) to enhance properties such as hardness, corrosion resistance, and toughness, with common examples including SAE 4130 and 4140 for structural and automotive uses. Stainless steels, distinguished by at least 10.5% content, offer superior corrosion resistance and are grouped into austenitic (e.g., 304 grade), ferritic, martensitic, and duplex subtypes for applications in , devices, and harsh environments. Tool steels, engineered for high wear resistance and durability, contain elements like and and are used in cutting tools and dies, with series such as AISI W1 or D2. Classification systems for steel grades are maintained by international organizations to ensure interoperability and standardization. The ASTM International system uses alphanumeric designations, such as "A" for ferrous metals followed by a number (e.g., A36 for carbon structural steel), specifying properties for products like plates, bars, and pipes. The SAE/AISI system employs a four-digit code for carbon and alloy steels, where the first two digits indicate the alloy type (e.g., 10xx for plain carbon, 41xx for chromium-molybdenum) and the last two denote carbon content in hundredths of a percent (e.g., 1040 has 0.40% carbon). European standards under ISO and EN (e.g., EN 10025 for structural steels) provide similar compositional and performance-based grading, often harmonized with ASTM for global trade. These systems facilitate selection based on microstructure—such as ferrite, pearlite, or martensite—which directly influences performance traits like tensile strength and weldability.

Fundamentals of Steel Grading

Definition and Purpose

Steel is an alloy primarily composed of iron and a small percentage of carbon, typically ranging from 0.02% to 2.1% by weight, along with possible alloying elements such as manganese, silicon, or chromium that influence its properties. Steel grades serve as standardized alphanumeric designations that classify different types of steel based on their chemical composition, mechanical properties, heat treatment processes, or intended applications. These classifications enable precise specification of material characteristics, such as strength levels or corrosion resistance, allowing engineers and manufacturers to select steels suited to specific performance needs. The primary purpose of steel grades is to facilitate , , , and global trade by providing a common framework for describing and verifying properties. For instance, in , adhering to appropriate grades helps prevent failures in load-bearing components like bridges or buildings by ensuring the material meets required thresholds for yield strength and . This standardization supports interoperability across supply chains, from production to end-use. Key benefits of steel grading systems include achieving consistency in , optimizing costs through targeted alloying and , and enabling throughout the lifecycle of products. By linking grades to verifiable properties like tensile strength or , these systems minimize variability in and enhance safety in demanding applications.

Historical Development

The development of steel grading systems began in the 19th century with informal practices in the UK and , where classification relied on rudimentary composition tests to assess carbon content and impurities in and early steel products. The introduction of the in the marked a pivotal shift, enabling of steel and prompting initial efforts to categorize materials based on their mechanical suitability for applications like railways and machinery. These early systems were largely empirical, often conducted by individual manufacturers without standardized protocols, reflecting the nascent industrial demand for consistent material quality. In the early , formalization accelerated with the establishment of key organizations in . The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) was founded in 1898 to develop reliable testing methods for steel properties, laying the groundwork for objective grading criteria. The (AISI), formed in 1908, introduced composition-based coding systems to specify alloy elements systematically. Complementing this, the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), established in 1905, began developing specialized grades for automotive applications around 1911, focusing on strength and durability requirements for emerging vehicle designs. These advancements shifted grading from ad hoc assessments to structured, industry-driven standards. Post-World War II globalization drove further evolution, as international trade necessitated harmonized systems. The (ISO) initiated efforts in 1947 to promote global consistency, including technical committees for steel specifications. In , the (JIS) were first formalized in 1921 but underwent significant updates post-1950 following the 1949 Industrial Standardization Law, incorporating modern testing for export-oriented production. European standards (EN) emerged in the 1970s under the (EEC), with the (CEN), founded in 1961, coordinating unified norms to replace disparate national codes. A key milestone was the 1980s transition from German DIN standards to EN equivalents, streamlining specifications across member states. In the , grading systems have incorporated advanced performance metrics and digital innovations. The American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) issued revisions in 2025 to accommodate high-performance grades optimized for seismic and sustainable applications. Emerging trends include blockchain-enabled digital , which enhances grading verification by providing immutable records of composition and processing from mill to end-use, addressing transparency demands. Additionally, in the 2010s, the (API) updated standards like API 5L to better suit sour service environments, incorporating enhanced resistance to hydrogen-induced cracking through refined HIC testing protocols.

Classification Approaches

By Mechanical Properties

Steel grades are classified by mechanical properties to emphasize their performance in service, prioritizing attributes like strength, , and over elemental makeup. This method allows engineers to select materials based on how they behave under load, ensuring reliability in demanding environments. Key criteria include yield strength, which is the stress level at which the steel starts to deform plastically and is specified as a minimum value in megapascals (MPa); tensile strength, the maximum stress before ; elongation, a measure of expressed as a of increase before breaking; and impact resistance, which gauges against sudden loads. Grade notations often feature numeric suffixes representing the minimum yield strength, such as 235 for 235 MPa, paired with letters denoting the application type, like S for structural steels. Mechanical properties are assessed through standardized tests. Tensile testing per ASTM E8 involves applying uniaxial tension to a machined specimen at room temperature (10–38°C) to derive yield strength, tensile strength, and elongation from the stress-strain curve. Yield strength is computed as σy=FyA\sigma_y = \frac{F_y}{A} where σy\sigma_y is the yield strength, FyF_y is the load at yield, and AA is the original cross-sectional area. Impact resistance uses the Charpy V-notch method under ISO 148-1, where a pendulum strikes a notched specimen to quantify absorbed energy in joules, indicating fracture toughness at specified temperatures. In applications, high-yield-strength steels support structural beams in buildings and bridges for efficient load-bearing. Toughness-focused grades suit pressure vessels, resisting brittle failure under pressure and thermal cycling. High-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels illustrate this approach, providing yield strengths above 250 MPa and good weldability for automotive frames and heavy machinery components. This classification advantages lie in verifying fitness-for-purpose through verifiable performance metrics, enabling proprietary formulations while meeting design requirements for strength and durability.

By Chemical Composition

Steel grades classified by chemical composition are defined primarily through the precise control and specification of elemental percentages, which serve as a blueprint for achieving consistent material behavior during manufacturing and application. This approach emphasizes the "recipe" of alloying elements, allowing manufacturers flexibility in heat treatment and processing to tailor properties while ensuring reproducibility across batches. Key elements include carbon, which typically ranges from 0.05% to 2.0% and acts as the primary hardener, along with manganese (up to 2%), silicon (0.2-2.5%), and intentional additions of alloying elements such as chromium, nickel, and molybdenum to enhance specific attributes like corrosion resistance or toughness. Tolerances for these elements are tightly controlled, often to ±0.01% for critical components like carbon, to minimize variations that could affect performance. Notation systems for these grades often employ numeric codes that directly reflect the composition. For plain carbon steels, a common scheme uses codes like 10xx, where "10" denotes a plain and "xx" represents the average carbon content in hundredths of a percent (e.g., 1040 for 0.40% carbon). The AISI/SAE 4-digit system extends this to steels, with the first two digits indicating the type (e.g., 51 for 1.00% steels) and the last two specifying the average carbon content in hundredths of a percent. These notations facilitate quick identification of the base composition without delving into results. A distinction exists between heat analysis and in compositional verification. Heat analysis, performed on samples from the molten ladle, reports the average composition of the entire heat and guides initial alloying adjustments. In contrast, examines the finished product, accounting for potential segregation or losses during solidification and processing, with allowable deviations typically up to ±0.03% for carbon and similar for other elements. To assess based on composition, the (CE) formula is widely used: CE=C+Mn6+Cr+Mo+V5+Ni+Cu15CE = C + \frac{Mn}{6} + \frac{Cr + Mo + V}{5} + \frac{Ni + Cu}{15} This empirical equation integrates the effects of multiple elements on hardenability and cracking susceptibility, with CE values below 0.4 generally indicating good weldability for low-alloy steels. Steels are categorized by carbon content into low-carbon (less than 0.3% C, prized for ductility and formability), medium-carbon (0.3-0.6% C, balancing strength and machinability), and high-carbon (greater than 0.6% C, valued for hardness and wear resistance). Stainless steels form a separate group, requiring at least 10.5% chromium to form a passive oxide layer for corrosion protection, often combined with nickel or molybdenum. High-alloy tool steels, featuring elevated levels of tungsten, vanadium, or cobalt, are designed for extreme wear and heat resistance in cutting tools and dies. In automotive applications, precise compositional control in low-alloy steels ensures optimal formability for body panels and structural components. Composition directly influences achievable mechanical properties, such as how higher carbon increases hardness but reduces ductility.

Major Regional Standards

European Standards (EN)

The European Standards (EN) for steel grades are established by the (CEN) and provide a unified system for designating steels across , primarily through EN 10027-1, which outlines rules for steel names using symbolic letters and numbers to indicate application, mechanical properties, or . This system divides designations into two main categories: Category 1, which prioritizes purpose and properties, and Category 2, which focuses on , ensuring consistency in specifications for non-alloy and alloy steels used in , machinery, and other sectors. In Category 1, steel names begin with letters denoting the type, such as S for or C for , followed by numbers representing minimum yield strength in megapascals (e.g., S355 indicates 355 MPa yield strength), and additional symbols for quality and treatment. Sub-standards like specify with grades ranging from S235 to S460, suitable for hot-rolled products in building and applications. For quenched and tempered steels, EN 10083 defines grades such as 25CrMo4, an with and for enhanced in mechanical components. Additional symbols include delivery conditions like +A for soft annealed, +N for normalized, and +QT for quenched and tempered, appended after the base name to specify processing; quality levels such as JR (27 J impact energy at 20°C), J0 (at 0°C), J2 (at -20°C), and K2 (40 J at -20°C) indicate Charpy V-notch toughness requirements. Full designations, such as S355J2G3 in older notations (now simplified to S355J2), incorporate these elements for precise material selection. Category 2 employs a numeric for composition-based identification, starting with a digit from 1 to 9 for families (e.g., 1 for non-alloy quality steels), followed by four digits for specific analysis, such as 1.0503 for C45, a medium-carbon with approximately 0.45% carbon used in general . For stainless steels, EN 10088 applies this , with grades like 1.4301 (X5CrNi18-10) denoting an austenitic composition of about 18% and 10% , equivalent to common 304 stainless for corrosion-resistant applications. These designations support diverse applications, with the S series predominantly used in construction for beams and plates due to its balance of strength and weldability, while the E series targets machinery and engineering components requiring specific toughness and machinability.

North American Standards (ASTM/AISI/SAE)

In North America, the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) designation systems provide a standardized numerical framework for identifying carbon and low-alloy steels based primarily on chemical composition. These systems employ a four-digit code where the first digit classifies the steel type—such as 1 for non-resulfurized carbon steels—while the subsequent digits approximate the carbon content in hundredths of a percent by weight; for instance, SAE 1018 indicates a plain carbon steel with chemical composition of C: 0.15–0.20%, Mn: 0.60–0.90%, Fe: 98.8–99.25%, P/S: ≤0.04–0.05% and no significant alloying elements beyond manganese. Alloy series extend from 2xxx (nickel-bearing steels) through 9xxx (various high-alloy types like silicon-manganese or nickel-chromium-molybdenum), encompassing over 150 grades tailored for diverse industrial uses, with SAE maintaining the active standards since AISI ceased issuing new designations in the 1990s. Complementing these composition-focused systems, ASTM International specifications—prefixed with "A" for ferrous materials—emphasize performance requirements including mechanical properties, test methods, and end-use suitability, often referencing AISI/SAE compositions for alignment. A prominent example is ASTM A36, a versatile carbon structural steel for riveted, bolted, or welded construction in bridges and buildings, mandating a minimum yield strength of 36 ksi (250 MPa) and tensile strength of 58-80 ksi (400-550 MPa). Many ASTM standards, such as those for bars and plates, incorporate AISI/SAE chemistry limits to ensure consistency across wrought products. Representative grades highlight the systems' versatility: AISI 4140, a -molybdenum (approximately 0.40% carbon, 0.8-1.1% , 0.15-0.25% ), offers high , resistance, and for applications like axles, gears, and components, achieving yield strengths up to 95 (655 MPa) after and tempering. SAE 52100, a through-hardening high-carbon (0.93-1.05% carbon, 1.35-1.60% ), provides exceptional resistance and rolling contact strength, making it the standard for ball and roller bearings with hardness levels of 58-65 HRC. In structural contexts, ASTM A514 delivers high-yield and tempered plates (yield strength 90-100 or 620-690 MPa depending on thickness) for heavy welded fabrications like crane booms and offshore platforms, balancing strength with weldability. Heat treatment conditions are denoted by suffixes in AISI/SAE-related specifications for bars and forgings, such as "A" for (full or subcritical to refine microstructure and enhance ) and "S" for spheroidize annealed (prolonged heating just below the eutectoid temperature to form globular carbides, improving in high-carbon grades without sacrificing strength potential). The 4th edition (2024) of the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) Seismic Design Manual incorporates updates for grades like ASTM A913 Grade 65 or 80, high-strength low-alloy steels with enhanced notch toughness and (yield strengths of 65 or 80 ), enabling lighter seismic-resistant framing in high-risk zones while meeting demands under cyclic loading. These standards find broad application in sector-specific contexts: SAE J403 outlines chemical ranges for carbon steels in automotive parts like frames and panels, ensuring formability and crash performance across grades from 1005 to 1095. ASTM A53 covers seamless and welded black or galvanized steel pipes for low-pressure conveyance of fluids such as water, gas, or steam in pipelines and structural tubing, with Grade B offering a minimum yield of 35 ksi (240 MPa) and seamless options for higher integrity. Historically, AISI focused on wrought steel compositions for general manufacturing, whereas SAE emphasizes automotive and mobility engineering, though the designations are now largely interchangeable with SAE as the primary steward.

Asian Standards (JIS/GB)

The (JIS) and Chinese national standards (GB) represent key frameworks for steel grading in Asia, adapting international principles to support regional manufacturing, construction, and engineering needs, with JIS emphasizing precision engineering and GB focusing on high-volume production for infrastructure. JIS employs an alphanumeric designation system for steel grades, where prefixes indicate the application and category, followed by numbers denoting mechanical properties such as tensile strength in megapascals (MPa). For instance, the grade SS400 under JIS G 3101 specifies structural rolled steels for general use, with "SS" denoting and "400" indicating a minimum tensile strength of 400 MPa. The G series standards cover a range of steels, including G 3101 for carbon structural steels and G 4053 for free-cutting steels used in tool applications. Key examples include S45C from JIS G 4051, a medium-carbon steel (approximately 0.45% carbon) suitable for machine structural components like shafts and gears due to its balanced strength and , and SM490 from JIS G 3106, a high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) structural steel with a minimum yield strength of 325 MPa, valued for welded structures. These grades align with ISO frameworks but incorporate Japan-specific testing protocols, such as JIS Z 2241 for , ensuring compliance with rigorous quality controls. In contrast, GB standards, managed by the Standardization Administration of , use a numeric system prefixed by letters to denote steel type and key properties, prioritizing yield strength for structural applications. The grade Q, governed by GB/T 700-2006 for carbon structural s, exemplifies this with "Q" indicating low-carbon steel and "235" representing a minimum yield strength of 235 MPa for thicknesses up to 16 , making it suitable for general fabrication with tensile strengths ranging from 370-500 MPa. GB/T 1591 addresses low-alloy high-strength structural s, such as Q345 series with yield strengths from 295-345 MPa depending on thickness, enhancing and for demanding uses. These standards specify dimensions, chemical compositions (e.g., carbon ≤0.22% for Q235B), and testing methods, including impact for grades like Q235D at -20°C. The Chaboche combined isotropic-kinematic hardening model is commonly applied in simulations of low-cycle fatigue behavior for Q235 steel. There is no single standard set of parameters, as they are typically fitted to specific experimental cyclic test data for the particular material batch and test conditions. Commonly reported ranges for Q235 steel (a mild carbon steel with yield strength ~235 MPa), often using two backstress components, include: elastic modulus E = 206 GPa, Poisson's ratio ν = 0.3, initial yield stress σ₀ = 235 MPa; kinematic hardening parameters C₁ ≈ 140000–206000 MPa, γ₁ ≈ 800–2000, C₂ ≈ 20000–50000 MPa, γ₂ ≈ 100–400; and in some cases isotropic hardening with Q ≈ 50–150 MPa, b ≈ 5–15. A frequently used set for simulation purposes, particularly as initial guesses for mild steels, is C₁ = 206000 MPa, γ₁ = 1000, C₂ = 20600 MPa, γ₂ = 100. These values are approximate and should be verified or refitted based on experimental data for accurate simulations. Recent developments in these standards reflect Asia's evolving industrial priorities. JIS G 3114 specifies hot-rolled atmospheric corrosion-resisting steels (SMA series) for welded structures, particularly in earthquake-prone regions, where grades like SMA570W provide superior resistance and for bridges and architectural elements, supporting seismic resilience through controlled alloying with elements like and (total ≤0.15% for Ti, V, Zr additions). Applications of these standards highlight regional distinctions: JIS grades like SS400 and SM490 are extensively used in for hulls, decks, and bulkheads due to their and resistance in marine environments, aligning with Japan's precision-focused shipyards. GB grades, such as Q345 under GB/T 1591, dominate projects like bridges and high-rise buildings in , benefiting from cost-effective, high-volume production that supports rapid . Overall, GB steels prioritize scalability for mass infrastructure, while JIS emphasizes quality and specialized performance for export-oriented sectors.

International and Specialized Standards

ISO and Global Harmonization Efforts

The (ISO) has been instrumental in advancing global harmonization of steel grades since the establishment of its Technical Committee 17 (ISO/TC 17) in 1947, which focuses on standardizing , wrought steel, and products, including technical delivery conditions. This committee oversees efforts to create unified nomenclature and specifications that reduce trade barriers and ensure consistency in material properties across borders. ISO's designation systems, outlined in documents like ISO/TR 15510 (an earlier technical report on compositions, evolved into ISO 15510:2014), employ numeric symbols for grades, such as Fe E 355 in ISO 630 for structural steels, where "Fe" denotes iron, "E" indicates normalized or equivalent treatment, and "355" specifies the minimum yield strength in MPa. These systems facilitate cross-referencing with national standards, promoting interoperability without mandating a complete overhaul of regional practices. Key ISO standards further support this harmonization by defining precise requirements for specific steel types. For instance, ISO 683 (a multi-part series, with ISO 683-1:2016 covering non- steels for and tempering) specifies technical delivery conditions for heat-treatable steels, steels, and free-cutting steels intended for parts and components. Similarly, ISO 4950-1:1995 addresses high-yield-strength flat steel products for structural applications, emphasizing manufacturing methods, acceptance criteria, and marking, with qualities akin to those in European EN S-series grades. EN standards frequently align with or reference ISO equivalents to streamline global supply chains. Despite these advances, challenges remain in achieving a single global grading system, as national and regional standards continue to evolve independently, leading to persistent discrepancies in testing methods and tolerances. ISO acts as a vital bridge, with ongoing TC 17 work integrating feedback from international stakeholders to refine specifications. In 2025, sustainability initiatives gained prominence through ISO/TC 17/SC 21 (established in 2023 for and the industry), which is developing guidelines for low-carbon processes and recycled content labeling to address environmental impacts, such as of secondary materials in production. These efforts align with broader ISO frameworks like ISO 14021 for environmental declarations, enabling labels that quantify recycled content to support goals. In practice, ISO-referenced grades are essential for international projects requiring cross-border collaboration, such as large-scale bridges where uniform material performance ensures structural integrity and . For example, the between and used S460 steel qualities harmonized via ISO-aligned standards to meet diverse national requirements while maintaining global quality benchmarks.

API Standards for Petroleum Applications

The (API) develops specialized standards for steel grades used in the , particularly for applications involving high-pressure and gas extraction, transportation, and production. These standards ensure materials can withstand extreme conditions such as corrosive environments, elevated pressures, and mechanical stresses unique to upstream and midstream operations. Unlike general-purpose steels, API grades prioritize attributes like resistance to (H2S) cracking, collapse resistance, and burst strength to support safe and reliable performance in drilling and systems. API 5L specifies requirements for seamless and welded steel line pipe used in the transportation of oil, gas, and related fluids over long distances. It defines two product specification levels: PSL 1, which provides standard quality with basic chemical and mechanical requirements, and PSL 2, which imposes stricter controls on composition, testing, and properties for enhanced performance. Common grades include X52, designated by its minimum yield strength of 52 ksi (360 MPa), and X70 with a minimum yield strength of 70 ksi (485 MPa); tensile strengths typically range from 66 ksi for X52 to 82 ksi for X70, ensuring pipes can handle high internal pressures during fluid conveyance. These grades are manufactured from carbon or low-alloy steels optimized for pipeline integrity. In contrast, API 5CT covers steel tubing and casing for oil and gas , focusing on downhole applications during and production. Grades range from H40, with a minimum yield strength of 40 , to P110 at 110 , offering progressively higher strength for deeper and more demanding ; for example, P110 provides a minimum tensile strength of 125 , suitable for high-pressure environments. These components isolate production zones, prevent well collapse, and facilitate extraction, with processes including seamless, electric-resistance welded, or coupled configurations. Key mechanical requirements across API 5L and 5CT grades include minimum yield and tensile strengths tailored to service conditions, along with Charpy impact toughness testing to ensure at low temperatures. For sour service involving H2S exposure, compliance with NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 is mandatory, limiting to 22 HRC for carbon steels to mitigate stress cracking while specifying environmental and metallurgical controls. Color coding with painted bands on pipe ends aids rapid identification: L80 grade features one red band and one brown band, while P110 uses a white band, standardizing logistics in field operations. Recent updates in 2025 reaffirm 5LC, which specifies seamless, centrifugal cast, and welded line pipe with enhanced corrosion-resistant for sour service, emphasizing low-carbon equivalents and alloying elements to improve resistance in aggressive H2S environments without compromising mechanical integrity. In applications, 5CT casings and tubings are critical for to contain formation pressures and protect well integrity, while 5L line pipes enable efficient transport from wells to processing facilities; both differ from general steels by mandating rigorous hydrostatic testing, non-destructive examination, and pressure-containment design to address petroleum-specific hazards like sour corrosion and cyclic loading.

Grade Equivalents and Comparisons

Cross-Reference Tables

Cross-reference tables offer practical overviews of steel grade equivalents across key international standards, facilitating quick comparisons for engineers and manufacturers. These equivalencies are determined by aligning similar chemical compositions (e.g., carbon content), minimum yield strengths, and intended applications, such as structural or general-purpose use. While not exact matches due to variations in testing methods and specifications, they provide reliable starting points for . The examples below are sourced from authoritative references, including the Handbook of Comparative World Steel Standards (ASTM DS67A, 2007 edition) for carbon, alloy, and HSLA steels, and ISO 15510:2010 for stainless steels.

Carbon Steels

The table below lists common low-carbon structural steels with equivalents based on yield strengths around 200-300 MPa and carbon contents typically under 0.25%, suitable for general fabrication and construction.
EN DesignationASTM/SAEJISGBNotes (Yield Strength, MPa)
S235JR (1.0038)A283 Grade CSS400Q235B235 min; general structural use
S275JR (1.0044)A36SS400Q275B275 min; welding applications
S235J0 (1.0114)A283 Grade BSS330Q235A235 min; similar ductility
S275J0 (1.0143)A570 Grade 30SS400Q275A275 min; plate forms
P235GH (1.0345)A285 Grade ASB41020g235 min; pressure vessels
For example, the SAE 1018 carbon steel, a common low-carbon grade used in machining and fabrication, has a chemical composition of C: 0.15–0.20%, Mn: 0.60–0.90%, Fe: 98.8–99.25%, P/S: ≤0.04–0.05%.

Alloy Steels

This table focuses on medium-carbon alloy steels with carbon contents of 0.4-0.5% and added elements like for improved strength and , often used in shafts and gears. Equivalents align on tensile strengths of 500-700 MPa.
EN DesignationAISI/SAEJISGBNotes (Carbon %, Tensile Strength, MPa)
1.0503 (C45)1045S45C45#0.42-0.50%; 540-700
C45E (1.1191)1045S45C45Mn0.42-0.50%; heat-treatable
1.0401 (Ck45)1045S45C40Mn0.42-0.50%;
1.0511 (40Mn4)1536SCMn136Mn0.32-0.39%; higher
1.0722 (11SMn30)1213SUM21Y15Free-machining; added
An example of a low-carbon alloy steel suitable for case hardening is SAE 8620, with the following chemical composition: C: 0.18–0.23%, Mn: 0.70–0.90%, Ni: 0.40–0.70%, Cr: 0.40–0.60%, Mo: 0.15–0.25%.

Stainless Steels

Austenitic stainless steels in this table share (17-19%) and (8-10%) contents for resistance, with equivalents verified through matches in ISO 15510:2010. They are widely used in and chemical equipment.
EN DesignationAISI/UNSJISGBNotes (Cr/Ni %)
1.4301 (X5CrNi18-10)304/S30400SUS3040Cr18Ni918/8; general purpose
1.4307 (X2CrNi18-9)304L/S30403SUS304L00Cr19Ni1018/9; low carbon variant
1.4401 (X5CrNiMo17-12-2)316/S31600SUS3160Cr17Ni12Mo217/12; enhanced
1.4571 (X6CrNiMoTi17-12-2)316Ti/S31635SUS316Ti0Cr18Ni12Mo2Ti17/12; stabilized
1.4541 (X6CrNiTi18-10)321/S32100SUS3210Cr18Ni10Ti18/10; stabilized

High-Strength Low-Alloy (HSLA) Steels

HSLA grades here feature yield strengths of 345-450 MPa with microalloying elements like niobium and vanadium for enhanced toughness, ideal for bridges and heavy machinery. Equivalents are based on mechanical properties and applications from the handbook.
EN DesignationASTMJISGBNotes (Yield Strength, MPa)
S355JR (1.0045)A572 Grade 50SM490AQ345B355 min; structural beams
S355J0 (1.0553)A572 Grade 50SM490BQ345C355 min; normalized
S355J2 (1.0570)A572 Grade 50SM490CQ345D355 min; low temperature
S355K2 (1.0595)A572 Grade 65SM520BQ390B355 min; impact tested
S460N (1.8902)A572 Grade 60SM570Q460C460 min; high strength

Factors Influencing Equivalency

Equivalency between steel grades from different standards is determined by assessing multiple interrelated factors, as direct one-to-one matches are rare due to variations in national specifications and testing protocols. Primary considerations include , mechanical properties, and methods, which must align closely for grades to be deemed equivalent. However, even when these align, differences in application requirements or environmental conditions can preclude full interchangeability. Standards development organizations (SDOs) like ASTM and ISO provide guidelines for cross-referencing, but equivalency often requires case-specific evaluation. Chemical composition serves as the foundational factor, with equivalency hinging on matching elemental limits for carbon (C), manganese (Mn), silicon (Si), phosphorus (P), sulfur (S), and alloying elements like chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), and molybdenum (Mo). For instance, carbon content typically ranges from 0.03% to 1.20% across standards, influencing strength and weldability; a carbon equivalent (CE = %C + %Mn/6) below 0.45% is often required for good weldability in both ASTM and EN grades. Discrepancies in allowable ranges—such as maximum P at 0.04% in ASTM versus 0.035% in EN—can affect purity and performance, necessitating heat analysis comparisons rather than product analysis. Alloy steels prioritize composition over other traits, grouping equivalents by similar alloying profiles, while carbon steels emphasize tensile strength groupings in 50 MPa increments. Mechanical properties are evaluated next, focusing on yield strength (typically 159–1175 MPa), tensile strength (262–1310 MPa), elongation (3–45%), and toughness (27–85 J at specified temperatures). These must meet or exceed the minimums of the reference standard, with adjustments for thickness; for example, EN grades like S355 may yield 355 MPa up to 16 mm but drop to 335 MPa beyond 40 mm, differing from consistent ASTM A572 values. Test acceptance criteria, such as bend test mandrel ratios or Charpy impact at -20°C, vary in severity—ASTM often uses longitudinal specimens, while DIN may specify transverse—impacting equivalency for structural applications. Non-matching properties, even with similar compositions, result in non-equivalent classifications. Processing and manufacturing factors further influence equivalency, including (e.g., normalized, quenched and tempered), deoxidation methods (killed vs. rimmed steels), and finishing techniques like hot-rolling or annealing. Rimmed steels, prohibited in ASTM A36 beyond 13 mm thickness due to segregation risks, may align with thinner DIN equivalents but not thicker ones. Cooling rates and metallurgical effects, such as , affect microstructure and properties; for example, JIS grades may incorporate for enhanced , altering equivalence to EN counterparts. Product form and shape—bars, plates, or pipes—also matter, as orientation (longitudinal vs. transverse) influences testing with ratios like L/D > 2. Application-specific factors, such as resistance, heat resistance, and service conditions (e.g., , ), can override compositional matches. For petroleum applications under standards, grades like ASTM A106 must demonstrate superior toughness at low temperatures compared to JIS equivalents. Specification philosophy—product-focused (ASTM) versus material-focused (DIN)—adds complexity, as does variability in tolerances and discontinued standards. Ultimately, equivalency demands professional judgment, often using carbon equivalents and SDO cross-references to mitigate risks in substitution.

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