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Eugene Eli Garfield (September 16, 1925 – February 26, 2017)[2][3] was an American linguist and businessman, one of the founders of bibliometrics and scientometrics.[4] He helped to create Current Contents, Science Citation Index (SCI), Journal Citation Reports, and Index Chemicus, among others, and founded the magazine The Scientist.[5][6][7][8]

Key Information

Early life and education

[edit]

Garfield was born in 1925 in New York City as Eugene Eli Garfinkle,[2] his mother being of Lithuanian Jewish ancestry.[9][10] His parents were second generation immigrants living in East Bronx in New York City.[11] He studied at the University of Colorado and University of California, Berkeley before getting a Bachelor of Science degree in chemistry from Columbia University in 1949.[12][13] Garfield also received a degree in Library Science from Columbia University in 1953.[11][14] He went on to do his PhD in the Department of Linguistics at the University of Pennsylvania, which he completed in 1961 for developing an algorithm for translating chemical nomenclature into chemical formulas.[1][15]

Career and research

[edit]

Working as a laboratory assistant at Columbia University after his graduation, Garfield indexed all previously synthesized compounds so that not to remake them, which helped him understand that his inclination to information towards science was bigger than towards chemistry.

In 1951, he got a position at the Welch Medical Library at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, where most of the National Library of Medicine information systems were developed. There he built search and cataloging system methods using punch-cards. In 1953, at the First Symposium on Machine Methods in Scientific Documentation, Garfield got introduced to Shepard's Citations.[11]

In 1960, Garfield founded the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI), which was located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.[16] In the 1990s, ISI was faced with bankruptcy and was acquired by JPT Holdings who later sold it to Thomson (Thomas Business Information) where it formed a major part of the science division of Thomson Reuters. In October 2016 Thomson Reuters completed the sale of its intellectual property and science division; it is now known as Clarivate Analytics.[17]

Garfield was responsible for many innovative bibliographic products, including Current Contents, the Science Citation Index (SCI), and other citation databases, the Journal Citation Reports, and Index Chemicus. He was the founding editor and publisher of The Scientist, a news magazine for life scientists.[11] In 2003, the University of South Florida School of Information was honored to have him as lecturer for the Alice G. Smith Lecture. In 2007, he launched Histcite, a bibliometric analysis and visualization software package.

Following ideas inspired by Vannevar Bush's highly cited 1945 article As We May Think, Garfield undertook the development of a comprehensive citation index showing the propagation of scientific thinking; he started the Institute for Scientific Information in 1956 (it was sold to the Thomson Corporation in 1992[18]). According to Garfield, "the citation index ... may help a historian to measure the influence of an article — that is, its 'impact factor'".[19] The creation of the Science Citation Index made it possible to calculate impact factor,[20] which ostensibly measures the importance of scientific journals. It led to the unexpected discovery that a few journals like Nature and Science were core for all of hard science. The same pattern does not happen with the humanities or the social sciences.[21][22]

His entrepreneurial flair in having turned what was, at least at the time, an obscure and specialist metric into a highly profitable business has been noted.[23] A scientometric analysis of his top fifty cited papers has been conducted.[24]

Garfield's work led to the development of several information retrieval algorithms, like the HITS algorithm and PageRank. Both use the structured citation between websites through hyperlinks. Google co-founders Larry Page and Sergey Brin acknowledged Garfield in their development of PageRank, the algorithm that powers their company's search engine.[23] Garfield published over 1,000 essays.

Honors and awards

[edit]

Garfield was honored with the Award of Merit from the Association for Information Science and Technology in 1975.

He was awarded the John Price Wetherill Medal in 1984,[16] the Derek de Solla Price Memorial Medal in 1984,[25] and the Miles Conrad Award in 1985.[26] He was also awarded the Richard J. Bolte Sr. Award in 2007.[27] He was elected to the American Philosophical Society that same year.[28]

The Association for Library and Information Science Education has a fund for doctoral research through an award named after Garfield.

Criticism

[edit]

Writing in Physiology News, No. 69, Winter 2007, David Colquhoun of the Department of Pharmacology, University College London, described the "impact factor," a method for comparing scholarly journals, as "the invention of Eugene Garfield, a man who has done enormous harm to true science." Colquhoun ridiculed C. Hoeffel's assertion that Garfield's impact factor "has the advantage of already being in existence and is, therefore, a good technique for scientific evaluation" by saying, "you can't get much dumber than that. It is a 'good technique' because it is already in existence? There is something better. Read the papers."

Personal life

[edit]

Garfield is survived by a wife, three sons, a daughter, two granddaughters, and two great-grandchildren.[2][16][29]

References

[edit]
[edit]
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Eugene Garfield

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Eugene Garfield (September 16, 1925 – February 26, 2017) was an American information scientist, publisher, and entrepreneur best known for founding the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) in 1960 and pioneering citation indexing as a method for organizing and retrieving . His innovations, including the Science Citation Index (SCI) launched in 1964, transformed by enabling researchers to trace the impact and interconnections of scientific works through cited references rather than traditional subject indexing. Born in to a family of Jewish immigrants, Garfield developed an early interest in and information management during his studies in chemistry. He earned a in chemistry from in 1949, followed by a in library from the same institution in 1954, and a Ph.D. in from the in 1961. His graduate work exposed him to the challenges of indexing complex scientific texts, inspiring his foundational 1955 paper proposing citation indexing as a solution for efficient literature searches and historical analysis of scientific progress. In 1951, while pursuing his library degree, Garfield joined the Welch Medical Indexing Project at , where he contributed to early developments in medical literature indexing that later influenced systems like and MEDLARS. Garfield's career shifted toward after brief consulting roles in the , leading him to establish Eugene Garfield Associates before founding ISI in . Under his leadership as president until 1992, then chairman until 1993, and later as chairman emeritus, ISI expanded rapidly, introducing key products such as Current Contents in 1957—a weekly alert service for new publications—and the (SSCI) in 1973, followed by the Arts & Humanities Citation Index (AHCI) in 1978. He also developed the (JCR) in 1976, which introduced the influential Journal Impact Factor as a metric for evaluating journal quality based on average citations. These tools laid the groundwork for the field of , using quantitative citation data to measure research impact and map the structure of scientific knowledge. In 1986, Garfield launched The Scientist, a news magazine for life scientists that he edited until his death, further extending his influence on scientific discourse. Throughout his career, Garfield authored over 1,000 essays in Current Contents and commented on 4,000 "Citation Classics"—highly cited papers—highlighting patterns in scientific productivity and influence. His work earned numerous accolades, including the Award of Merit from the American Society for Information Science in 1975, the Herman Skolnick Award from the in 1977, and the John Price Wetherill Medal from the in 1984 for contributions to . ISI was acquired by in 1992 (later becoming part of Clarivate Analytics), perpetuating Garfield's vision through platforms like the . Garfield died in at age 91, leaving a legacy as the "father of " that continues to shape global research evaluation and discovery.

Biography

Early life and education

Eugene Garfield was born Eugene Eli Garfinkle on September 16, 1925, in to a family of second-generation Jewish immigrants from . His parents had roots in , and he grew up in the neighborhood, where his early environment reflected the immigrant experiences of many Jewish families in the city during that era. In early adulthood, Garfinkle changed his surname to Garfield, adopting the name under which he would become known professionally. He pursued undergraduate studies in chemistry at , earning a degree in 1949. Garfield then continued at Columbia for graduate work, obtaining a in Library Science in 1954, which shifted his focus toward the organization and dissemination of scientific knowledge. Garfield's doctoral studies took him to the University of Pennsylvania, where he earned a PhD in Linguistics in 1961. His dissertation, titled "An Algorithm for Translating Chemical Names to Molecular Formulas," explored computational methods in linguistics applied to chemical nomenclature, bridging his chemistry background with emerging interests in automated information processing. During his academic years, Garfield developed early interests in science communication and information retrieval, influenced conceptually by Vannevar Bush's 1945 essay "As We May Think," which envisioned associative trails for linking knowledge.

Personal life

Garfield married his first wife in the early 1950s, with whom he had a son, Stefan; the marriage ended in , after which he became a . He remarried in 1955 to Winifred, his second wife, who predeceased him. In later years, Garfield married Meher, with whom he remained until his death. He was survived by three sons—Stefan, Joshua, and —a daughter Laura, a stepdaughter Cornelia, two grandchildren, and two great-grandchildren; an earlier daughter, Thea, predeceased him. Garfield resided in the area for much of his adult life, including in , at the time of his passing. Garfield died on February 26, 2017, in Bryn Mawr at the age of 91, due to complications related to advanced age. His longevity enabled him to witness and guide the evolution of his professional endeavors well into the . Beyond his career, Garfield maintained a strong personal interest in writing and , authoring over 1,500 essays that reflected his broad perspectives on scientific progress and knowledge dissemination.

Professional Career

Founding of the Institute for Scientific Information

Eugene Garfield's vision for improving scientific documentation through citation indexing originated in his seminal 1955 paper, "Citation Indexes for : A New Dimension in Documentation through Association of Ideas," published in the journal Science. In this article, Garfield proposed a system that would link scientific works via their citations, enabling researchers to trace intellectual associations and navigate the growing volume of literature more efficiently than traditional subject-based indexes. This idea stemmed from his earlier experiences in and built upon concepts explored in his doctoral work, including algorithms for automated indexing. In 1960, Garfield founded the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to realize this vision on a commercial scale. The institute was established with a combination of initial funding from a three-year grant awarded by the (NIH) to develop a prototype in , alongside Garfield's personal financial contributions, including loans to bootstrap operations. ISI began as a small enterprise, operating from modest facilities and relying on a limited team to handle the labor-intensive tasks of data collection and processing. The early years of ISI were marked by significant challenges, including the manual production of indexes, which involved staff meticulously cutting and organizing content from journals, and the need to sustain operations through ancillary services like document delivery to pharmaceutical and research clients. With a focus initially on chemistry and —fields where Garfield had prior expertise—the institute bootstrapped its growth by providing practical tools for literature awareness amid limited resources and skepticism from the academic community. To address immediate researcher needs, ISI launched Current Contents in 1962 as a weekly alerting service that reprinted tables of contents from leading journals in these disciplines, offering a low-cost way to stay current without full-text access.

Development of citation indexing tools

Eugene Garfield's development of citation indexing tools revolutionized scientific literature retrieval by enabling users to trace the impact and connections of research through citations rather than traditional subject headings. Building on his earlier conceptual work, Garfield founded the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) in 1960 to operationalize these ideas. The cornerstone product, the Science Citation Index (SCI), was first published in 1964 as a quarterly print edition that covered approximately 600 leading journals across the sciences, providing a multidisciplinary view of scholarly connections. This initial SCI edition consisted of four main sections: a source index listing articles by author and journal, a citation index mapping cited references to citing articles, a source title index for journal lookup, and a permuted title index that rearranged article titles by rotating keywords to enhance discoverability without relying on controlled vocabularies. The methodology emphasized forward citation tracking, where each article's references were recorded to allow searches from known works to subsequent citing publications, fostering an "association of ideas" approach to navigation. Prior to the SCI, Garfield launched Index Chemicus in July 1960 as ISI's inaugural product, specifically designed to index chemical reactions and substances from the literature by capturing structural formulas and bibliographic details from over 100 core chemistry journals. This tool complemented the broader citation framework by focusing on chemical-specific retrieval, using molecular indexes and listings to support synthesis planning and in the pharmaceutical and chemical industries. By 1966, Index Chemicus had expanded its coverage and integration, becoming a vital companion to the emerging SCI for specialized searches. The SCI's scope grew to encompass additional disciplines, with the (SSCI) introduced in 1973 to address the need for citation tracking in social sciences, initially covering around 1,400 journals and enabling analysis of interdisciplinary influences like and . This expansion applied the same core methodology—source indexing of articles and forward citation mapping—to non-natural sciences, revealing citation patterns across fields previously underserved by indexing tools. In 1978, the Arts & Humanities Citation Index (AHCI) followed, indexing approximately 1,100 journals in , , and related areas, which incorporated unique features like cited work indexing for books and non-journal sources to capture the diverse referencing styles in these domains. These extensions maintained the permuted title index and citation linkage principles, allowing users to follow intellectual threads in creative and interpretive scholarship. By the early 1980s, ISI transitioned these tools to online formats through proprietary systems, beginning with magnetic tape distributions in the 1970s and evolving to dial-up access via platforms like BRS/Search, which provided searchable electronic versions of the SCI, SSCI, and AHCI starting around 1974 and expanding significantly in the 1980s. This shift enabled real-time forward and backward citation searching across millions of records, dramatically improving accessibility and speed over print editions while preserving the foundational source indexing and permuted title mechanisms for comprehensive literature discovery.

Later career and sale of ISI

In the mid-1980s, Garfield expanded ISI's portfolio by launching The Scientist, a biweekly dedicated to and commentary in the life sciences, which was distributed free to subscribers and aimed to bridge the gap between scientific research and broader professional discourse. By this period, ISI had grown significantly from its earlier years, employing over 500 people and establishing a presence that included international operations to support its global indexing services. This expansion was driven by the success of core products like the Science Citation Index, which formed the foundation of ISI's valuation as a leader in scientific information services. Facing challenges including ill health and internal management issues, Garfield and key shareholders sold ISI to the in 1992 for an undisclosed sum, marking a pivotal transition that allowed him to step back from day-to-day operations. Following the acquisition, Garfield assumed the role of Chairman Emeritus at the newly rebranded Thomson ISI, where he provided advisory input during the integration process. He also continued overseeing aspects of The Scientist and engaged in reflective writing, contributing to the preservation of ISI's historical records. In the 1990s, as Thomson further developed the acquired assets—eventually merging with in to form —Garfield gradually retired from active involvement, shifting his focus to archival projects and personal essays that documented the evolution of . This period allowed him to emphasize and legacy-building, drawing on decades of experience without the demands of executive leadership.

Contributions to Information Science

Key publications and essays

Eugene Garfield's seminal 1955 article, "Citation Indexes for : A New Dimension in Documentation through Association of Ideas," published in Science, proposed the use of citation indexes as a tool for information retrieval by associating ideas through referenced connections, arguing that traditional subject indexing was insufficient for the growing volume of . This work laid the foundational concept for citation-based searching, emphasizing how citations could reveal intellectual pathways and facilitate discovery beyond keyword matching. In his 1961 PhD dissertation at the , titled "An Algorithm for Translating Chemical Names to Molecular Formulas," Garfield developed a systematic method to convert complex into empirical formulas, addressing the challenges of parsing organic names for computational processing. The algorithm consists of eight rules for recognition and substitution, beginning with ignoring locants (numerical prefixes like 1,4-) while retaining parentheses, then replacing name components—such as "eth" for C₂H₅ (2C + 5H) or "nitro" for NO₂ (N + 2O + 1 double bond, DB)—with their atomic and bond values from a . Ambiguities, like "penta" as a multiplier (5) versus an , are resolved by examining subsequent morphemes; plus signs are inserted after morphemes (except multipliers) and adjusted around parentheses before performing multiplications. Hydrogen atoms are finally calculated using the formula H = 2 + 2n_C + n_N - n_X - 2n_DB, where n_C is the number of carbons, n_N nitrogens, n_X , and n_DB double bonds. Examples include translating "methylaminoethane" to C₃H₉N (methyl = CH₃, amino = NH₂, = C₂H₅, adjusted for linkages) and the more complex "N-[3-(diethylamino)propyl]-N-ethyl-2-amino-1,4-butanedioic acid" to C₁₃H₂₆N₂O₄, demonstrating the algorithm's handling of nested substituents and functional groups. Garfield authored over 1,000 essays, initially published weekly in Current Contents from 1962 onward and later compiled into the 18-volume series Essays of an Information Scientist (1977–1993), which explored topics in , scientific communication, and the of . These essays served as reflective commentaries, drawing on his experiences at the Institute for Scientific Information to advocate for innovative documentation practices. Among the key pieces, his 1979 essay "Is a Legitimate Evaluation Tool?" in defended the use of citations for assessing scientific impact while acknowledging limitations like self-citation and field-specific norms, positioning it as a supplementary rather than sole metric. Garfield also offered reflections on the of in essays such as "Historiographs, Librarianship, and the " (1977), where he discussed how citation networks could map the evolution of scientific ideas and integrate librarianship with historical analysis. Beyond these, Garfield contributed chapters to edited volumes on , including discussions on citation patterns and knowledge mapping in works like The Use of Citation Data in Writing (1980), which extended his ideas on algorithmic . He also participated in oral histories, such as the 1997 interview conducted by Robert V. Williams for the Chemical Heritage Foundation, where he recounted the development of his early ideas on information systems and their broader implications.

Introduction of the impact factor

In the mid-1960s, Eugene Garfield, in collaboration with Irving H. Sher, developed the as a quantitative metric to evaluate the influence of scientific periodicals, building on his earlier conceptualization of the idea in a 1955 article in Science. This metric was integrated into the (JCR), which Garfield's (ISI) first published in 1975 as an annual compilation derived from citation data in the Science (SCI). The aimed to provide an objective measure of a journal's citation reception, facilitating informed decisions in academic resource management. The methodology of the impact factor centers on a simple ratio that captures recent citation activity relative to a journal's output. Specifically, for a given year YY, the impact factor is calculated as: Impact Factor=Number of citations in year Y to items published in Y−1 and Y−2Number of citable items published in Y−1 and Y−2\text{Impact Factor} = \frac{\text{Number of citations in year } Y \text{ to items published in } Y-1 \text{ and } Y-2}{\text{Number of citable items published in } Y-1 \text{ and } Y-2} Here, "citable items" typically include substantive articles, reviews, and proceedings papers, excluding editorials, letters, or news items. To illustrate, consider a hypothetical journal Example Science Quarterly. Suppose in 2023 (YY), it receives 150 citations to its papers from 2021 and 2022. In those two years, it published 50 citable items in 2021 and 60 in 2022, totaling 110 citable items. The step-by-step calculation is:
  1. Identify citations: Sum the 150 citations received in 2023 for the 110 items from 2021–2022.
  2. Identify denominator: Count the 110 citable items published in 2021–2022.
  3. Divide: 150÷110≈1.36150 \div 110 \approx 1.36.
Thus, the journal's 2023 would be approximately 1.36, indicating its average citation rate for recent content. Garfield's for the was to assist librarians and professionals in selecting and subscribing to journals, particularly for inclusion in indexing services like the SCI, rather than evaluating individual researchers or articles. In its early implementation, the 1975 JCR covered approximately 2,000 journals across scientific disciplines, with annual updates to reflect evolving citation patterns and journal landscapes.

Recognition and Legacy

Honors and awards

Eugene Garfield received numerous honors throughout his career, recognizing his pioneering work in , particularly the development of and tools like the Science Citation Index (SCI). In 1975, he was awarded the Award of Merit by the American Society for Information Science (ASIS), now known as ASIS&T, for his groundbreaking contributions to documentation services and the establishment of innovative systems for organizing scientific literature. Garfield's advancements in managing scientific information were further acknowledged in 1984 with the John Price Wetherill Medal from the , specifically for creating a comprehensive system that revolutionized the indexing and retrieval of , including the SCI launched in 1964. That same year, he became the inaugural recipient of the Derek de Solla Price Memorial Medal, established by the journal to honor contributions to the field of , celebrating Garfield's foundational role in quantitative analysis of scientific communication through citation-based metrics. In 1985, Garfield was presented with the Miles Conrad Award by the National Federation of Abstracting and Information Services (NFAIS) during their annual conference, where he also delivered the associated memorial lecture, recognizing his leadership in abstracting, indexing, and the broader ecosystem of scientific information dissemination. Later in his career, Garfield's enduring impact on standards and practices in information organization earned him the Richard J. Bolte Sr. Award for Supporting Industries in 2007 from the Chemical Heritage Foundation (now the ), highlighting his innovations that supported the chemical and scientific information sectors. In the same year, he was elected to membership in the , the oldest in the United States, in recognition of his scholarly contributions to the and methodology of .

Criticisms of citation metrics

While Eugene Garfield's introduction of citation indexing and the journal impact factor revolutionized , these tools faced growing scrutiny from the 1990s onward as they became central to academic evaluations. During this period, debates intensified as funding agencies, universities, and tenure committees increasingly relied on impact factors for decisions, leading to concerns about their validity and unintended effects on practices. A prominent critique came from pharmacologist David in a 2003 Nature correspondence, where he argued that impact factors represent a "misuse in the hands of university administrators" by serving as a simplistic proxy for quality. Colquhoun highlighted how this pressures researchers to prioritize publications in high-impact journals, fostering a focus on quantity over depth and quality, while disadvantaging interdisciplinary work that may not align with established citation norms in dominant fields. Additional criticisms targeted inherent biases in the metrics. Impact factors exhibit a strong bias toward English-language journals, systematically undervaluing research published in other languages and marginalizing non-Anglophone scholars. Self-citation practices further inflate scores, as journals and authors strategically cite prior work within the same outlet to boost apparent influence, distorting the measure's reliability. Moreover, by focusing exclusively on journal articles, impact factors neglect vital non-journal outputs such as books, which remain a cornerstone of in and social sciences. Garfield himself addressed these issues in several essays, repeatedly acknowledging that impact factors were never intended for evaluating individual researchers or institutions but solely for comparing journals' average citation rates. He emphasized the wide variability in article-level citations within any single journal, warning against their application in personnel assessments like tenure or funding allocations.

Influence on modern scientometrics

Garfield's foundational work on citation indexing profoundly shaped modern search algorithms by establishing the principle that links between documents—analogous to citations—could indicate relevance and authority. This concept directly influenced Jon Kleinberg's , introduced in 1998, which models web pages as hubs and authorities based on mutual reinforcement through hyperlinks, mirroring the inbound and outbound citation structures in . Similarly, Google's algorithm, also debuted in 1998 by and , adapted these citation-based linking ideas to rank web pages by treating hyperlinks as votes of importance, with empirical validation showing alignment between PageRank's premises and Garfield's theory of citation indexing as a measure of influence. These developments extended Garfield's Science Citation Index (SCI) vision beyond academia to the broader digital ecosystem, enabling scalable relevance computation in hyperlinked environments. The tools Garfield pioneered evolved significantly under subsequent ownership, expanding their scope and integrating complementary metrics to address limitations in traditional . Following the 1992 acquisition of the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) by , the SCI transitioned into the platform, which further enhanced after their 2008 merger by adding broader coverage and analytical features. In 2016, Analytics spun off from , rebranding and revitalizing ISI's assets, including the , with expansions such as the 2018 revival of ISI as a dedicated division to refine content selection and scientometric tools. Post-2016, integrated —tracking social media mentions, downloads, and other non-citation indicators—through a 2017 partnership with , allowing users to view real-time citation counts alongside alternative impact measures for a more holistic assessment of dissemination. Garfield's citation frameworks have permeated global research policy, informing university rankings and evaluation practices while sparking debates on equitable reforms. The Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU), launched in 2003 by , incorporates citation metrics such as the number of highly cited researchers—defined using data—and papers in top journals, directly building on ISI's citation indexing to quantify institutional and influence. These metrics also underpin tenure and promotion decisions worldwide, where citation counts from tools like serve as proxies for scholarly impact, though ongoing discussions highlight needs for reforms to mitigate biases against interdisciplinary or emerging fields. Such applications underscore the policy legacy of Garfield's and SCI as benchmarks for academic accountability. In recognition of his enduring influence, established the Eugene Garfield Award for Innovation in in , granting $25,000 annually through 2022 to researchers advancing citation-based metrics; this evolved into the Eugene Garfield Memorial Lecture in 2023, continuing to honor innovations in . As of 2025, 's Highly Cited Researchers program marked the centenary of Garfield's birth, celebrating his foundational role in . Beyond metrics, Garfield's essays advanced the of by demonstrating how citation patterns reveal trajectories of discovery and knowledge evolution. In works like "Use of Citation Data in Writing the ," he illustrated how historiographs—visual maps of citation networks—trace historical dependencies and shifts, enabling retrospective analysis of scientific progress without relying solely on narrative accounts. His explorations in "Historiographs, Librarianship, and the " further showed citation flows between journals over time as indicators of disciplinary maturation, influencing modern scientometric studies that animate these patterns to study innovation dynamics. These contributions have shaped algorithmic , where co-citation and co-word analyses, inspired by Garfield, model the temporal unfolding of scientific ideas.

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