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Long slow distance
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Long slow distance (LSD) is a form of aerobic endurance training used in sports including running,[1] rowing,[2] skiing [3] and cycling.[4][5] It is also known as aerobic endurance training, base training and Zone 2 training.[6] Physiological adaptations to LSD training include improved cardiovascular function, improved thermoregulatory function, improved mitochondrial energy production, increased oxidative capacity of skeletal muscle, and increased utilization of fat for fuel.[4] Ernst van Aaken, a German physician and coach, is generally recognized as the founder of the LSD method of endurance training.[7][8][9]

LSD training is a form of continuous training performed at a constant pace at low to moderate intensity over an extended distance or duration.[10] The moderate training intensity of LSD is effective in improving endurance and maximum oxygen uptake in individuals who are undertrained or moderately trained.[10] Although LSD training is not effective when used in isolation by well-trained athletes,[10] there is substantial evidence that elite athletes spend 70% or more of their training time at LSD output levels, that LSD effort levels are a necessary part of the training of world class athletes,[11] and that LSD workouts are primary drivers of the lower resting heart rates seen in well conditioned athletes.[12]

History

[edit]

Tim Noakes, a professor of exercise and sports science at the University of Cape Town, suggests that it was Arthur Newton who initially proposed that running longer distances at slower paces was the most effective training method for beginning runners.[13] Noakes asserts that after this method was rediscovered in the 1960s, Joe Henderson coined the term "long slow distance".[13]

Joe Henderson

[edit]

Long slow distance running was promoted as a training method by Joe Henderson in 1969.[14] Henderson saw his approach as providing an alternative to the dominant school of training for distance running which he called “PTA school of running – the pain, torture, and agony” approach. He documented the success of six competitive runners who followed in one form or another an LSD training regime, sometimes combining a few more strenuous workouts with the regular LSD running with weekly mileages ranging from 50–60 miles (80–100 km) to 120–150 miles (190–240 km) per week, with marathon personal bests between 2:14 and 2:50 hours.[14] In addition, there are ultra-marathoners who use a similar method for training.[15] A typical 5k runner might consider 8 to 10 miles (13 to 16 km) of LSD, while a marathoner might run 20 miles (32 km) or more. LSD runs are typically done at an easy pace, 1–3 minutes per mile slower than a runner's 10k pace. The objectives of these runs are to build blood volume and to increase muscle strength, endurance, and aerobic fitness.

Henderson's book was not only directed at competitive runners, but also at runners who wanted to have fun running. He writes, “LSD isn't just a training method. It's a whole way of looking at the sport. Those who employ it are saying running is fun – all running, not just the competitive part which yields rewards.” [16][17]

Approaches to running

[edit]

During the running boom of the 1970s, many recreational runners used LSD as a basis for training.[18] One of the "fathers" of the Honolulu Marathon, cardiologist Jack Scaff used a long slow distance approach to train runners in his marathon clinics.[19][20] Scaff advised his runners to follow the "talk test", an idea that had originated from Arthur Lydiard in which runners should be going slow enough to be able to hold a conversation.[21] According to sportswriter John Brant in his 2006 book Duel in the Sun, almost every serious distance runner in the early 1980s used Lydiard's system of building an endurance base with many miles at an aerobic pace before running shorter distances at an anaerobic pace.[22]

Starting out with an hour run, three times a week, and building up to weekly averages of 40 to 60 miles a week for the last three months, thousands of graduates of the program have found that they could complete the full Honolulu Marathon which is held every year at the beginning of December. The clinic's approach can be seen from its original Rules of the Road, now referred to as the "basic set of rules that lay the foundation for your training."[23]

The rules:
  • No fewer than three runs per week
  • No more than five runs per week
  • No less than one hour per run
  • No farther than 15 miles on any run
  • One run per week lasting two hours or more (after month 5)[24]

A variant of the LSD approach is to combine running slowly with walking breaks.

"It has been found that average runners will have more success if they take regular walk breaks.
"The strategy is unusual in that it doesn't involve simply walking when you are tired. Walk-break runners force themselves to stop even at the beginning of a run when they are fresh."[25]

An example of such an approach is provided by the running clinics organized by Jeff Galloway[26] In running circles, John Bingham aka the Penguin, is a well-known practitioner of LSD combined with walking breaks.[27]

Another popular practitioner is Phil Maffetone, who created the Maffetone Method which is also called Low Heart Rate Training.[28] His methodology involves finding your maximum heart rate for training in your easy aerobic zone and initially doing all workouts in that zone. This is similar to LSD, but gives heart rate as a concrete way to know when to slow down. This style of training has become popular for those dealing with health issues, overtraining and learning how to build an aerobic base.

Limitations

[edit]

Arthur Lydiard wrote that LSD system of training does not reach the levels of effort most effective for building aerobic fitness.[29] Pete Pfitzinger has written that the long slow distance method of training is acceptable for novice runners hoping to complete a marathon, but that more experienced runners benefit from long runs that, depending on the workout, incorporate a variety of paces including speeds approaching race pace.[30] According to Pfitzinger, varying paces are necessary because different physiological adaptations, including increased glycogen storage and fat utilization, occur at specific training paces.[30]

Galloway points out that if a runner wishes to increase their speed, interval training or speed training is recommended.[31] Henderson uses races as speedwork and is a proponent of speedwork in limited quantities.

The scientific literature indicates that high-intensity training can provide greater benefit towards anaerobic capacity than moderate-intensity endurance training.[32] The U.S. Army is reducing the use of long runs in its physical training programs.[33]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Long slow distance

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from Grokipedia
Long slow distance () is an method primarily used in running and other aerobic sports, characterized by extended sessions of low-intensity exercise performed at a relaxed pace to build aerobic fitness, increase fat metabolism, and improve overall stamina without excessive strain on the body. The term "long slow distance" was coined by American running coach and writer in his 1969 book Long Slow Distance: The Humane Way to , which advocated for a humane, sustainable approach to distance running that emphasized enjoyment and long-term health over high-intensity efforts. This method draws from earlier influences, such as coach Lydiard's promotion of long steady runs in the and 1960s to develop a strong aerobic base for elite athletes, though Lydiard focused on steady rather than explicitly slow pacing. LSD training gained popularity in the 1970s and 1980s as part of the boom, aligning with the 80/20 rule of polarized , where approximately 80% of mileage is done at low intensity to allow for 20% of higher-effort work. Key benefits of LSD include enhanced cardiovascular efficiency, reduced oxygen cost during submaximal efforts, and improved , such as decreased and increased fat-free mass, as demonstrated in studies on novice marathoners. Recent research as of 2025 continues to affirm these benefits, showing LSD improves aerobic capacity and endurance performance. It trains the body to rely more on fat as fuel, lowers lactate accumulation, and minimizes injury risk by avoiding , making it suitable for runners preparing for marathons, ultramarathons, or triathlons. Research shows that programs incorporating LSD at 60-75% of reserve, whether 4 or 6 days per week, yield similar improvements in peak oxygen consumption (VO2peak) and marathon performance times for beginners. In practice, LSD runs are typically executed at a pace 1-3 minutes per mile slower than a runner's 10K race pace, or within Zone 2 heart rate (60-70% of maximum), allowing for comfortable conversation or nasal breathing. Distances often range from 6 to 20 miles or more, with duration prioritized over speed—aiming to simulate race-day time on feet, such as 2-4 hours for marathon training—while gradually increasing volume to prevent burnout and reduce the risk of overuse injuries such as shin splints and runner's knee. Coaches recommend scheduling LSD as the cornerstone weekly run, often on weekends, complemented by recovery days and speed sessions for balanced progression.

Fundamentals

Definition and Purpose

Long slow distance (LSD) training is a form of low-intensity, prolonged , typically involving running or other endurance activities performed at 60-70% of an individual's maximum , which corresponds to heart rate zone 2. This approach emphasizes sustained effort over extended periods, often accounting for 20% or more of an athlete's total weekly mileage through dedicated long sessions. The primary purpose of LSD training is to build aerobic by enhancing the body's capacity for fat metabolism, increasing mitochondrial density in muscle cells, and expanding networks to improve oxygen delivery and transport during prolonged activity. These adaptations support sustained performance in endurance events by optimizing energy utilization from aerobic sources, reducing reliance on stores, and promoting recovery through lower physiological stress. Unlike interval or speed training, which incorporate high-intensity efforts to target anaerobic systems and push beyond the , LSD prioritizes volume over intensity to remain firmly within aerobic limits, thereby avoiding excessive lactate accumulation and fatigue. Typical LSD workouts consist of steady-paced runs lasting 60 to 180 minutes, often on varied such as trails or roads to simulate race conditions while maintaining conversational effort levels.

Key Principles

The foundational principle of long slow distance (LSD) centers on maintaining a deliberately easy pacing to prioritize aerobic development without inducing fatigue. Runners are guided to sustain a conversational effort level, often assessed via the "talk test," where one can speak in full sentences without gasping for breath. Pacing should feel effortless, often 60-90 seconds per mile slower than goal marathon pace, to allow for sustained volume without risking overexertion. Duration in LSD sessions is structured to exceed 90 minutes, as this threshold enables significant aerobic adaptations by extending time spent in low-intensity efforts. Guidelines recommend starting at levels appropriate to fitness—such as 60-90 minutes for —and progressively increasing volume by 10% weekly to build capacity while minimizing risk. For marathon , peak durations may match anticipated race time on feet, such as 3-4 hours, to simulate demands without high intensity. Frequency of LSD sessions is typically limited to 1-2 per week to balance aerobic gains with recovery needs, forming about 20-30% of total weekly mileage. This allocation aligns with the 80/20 rule, where 80% of volume occurs at low intensity like to support overall base building. Monitoring efforts relies on objective and subjective tools to ensure adherence to easy pacing. zones provide a key metric, targeting Zone 2 at 60-70% of maximum , where lactate accumulation remains minimal. Perceived exertion scales complement this, aiming for RPE 3-4 on a 10-point scale, indicative of moderate effort that feels sustainable over long periods. These methods help runners adjust in real-time, preventing unintended shifts to higher intensities. The principle of consistency underpins LSD success, emphasizing gradual mileage buildup over weeks or months to foster adaptations while averting . Recovery is integral, with sessions followed by rest days or light activity, adequate , and sleep to replenish energy stores and repair tissues. This approach ensures sustainable progress, allowing LSD to serve as a cornerstone for without compromising subsequent quality.

Historical Development

Origins in Endurance Sports

The roots of long slow distance (LSD) training trace back to European endurance traditions in the 1930s and 1940s, particularly in and , where coaches emphasized steady, prolonged efforts to build aerobic capacity for cross-country running and skiing. Finnish runners, exemplified by , incorporated long walks of up to four hours alongside steady-paced runs to develop endurance bases, laying foundational principles for volume-oriented preparation in track and marathon events. In Sweden, Gosta Holmer's introduction of training in the mid-1930s promoted unstructured yet sustained efforts over varied terrain, blending steady aerobic work with occasional surges to enhance overall stamina without excessive intensity. By the late 1940s and into the , coaches like Ernst van Aaken formalized these ideas into structured "pure " approaches, advocating daily long runs at low heart rates (120-150 bpm) covering 40 km or more for marathoners, with minimal anaerobic stress to maximize capillary development and fat utilization. In , refined volume-based aerobic base building during the mid-, prescribing at least 100 miles per week of continuous running at easy to moderate paces (e.g., one-quarter to three-quarters effort) over diverse terrains, including hills, to prepare track and marathon athletes for subsequent speed work. Similarly, in the United States, began promoting aerobic development through high-mileage easy days as part of his hard/easy principle by the late , drawing from European influences to balance recovery with base accumulation for collegiate distance runners. These practices were often termed "base mileage" or "aerobic threshold training" in mid-20th-century coaching literature, reflecting a shift from predominant interval methods toward sustained volume for foundational . The adoption of these volume-focused techniques gained prominence in the through Olympic marathon preparation, where Lydiard's system propelled athletes like Barry Magee to a at the 1960 Olympics via extended steady-state runs building to 100+ miles weekly. Emil Zátopek's regimens, while interval-heavy, incorporated prolonged high-volume sessions (up to 150 miles per week) that indirectly supported aerobic base concepts, influencing global coaches toward integrating steady efforts for marathon success. Early evidence of efficacy appeared in events like the in the 1950s and , where winners and top performers relied on high-mileage preparation. This prefigured the formalized era, establishing volume-based aerobic work as essential for elite endurance outcomes.

Popularization and Key Figures

The popularization of long slow distance (LSD) training gained momentum during the jogging boom , a period marked by an estimated 25 million Americans adopting running for recreational fitness and health benefits. This cultural shift was fueled by growing awareness of aerobic exercise's role in cardiovascular health, transforming running from an elite sport into an accessible activity for the masses. LSD, emphasizing extended runs at a comfortable pace, aligned perfectly with this movement by offering a low-risk for beginners, contrasting earlier high-intensity approaches that intimidated novices. A pivotal figure in coining and promoting the term "long slow distance" was , a longtime editor and columnist at magazine. In his 1969 booklet Long Slow Distance: The Humane Way to Train, Henderson advocated for as a gentle, injury-preventive method suitable for recreational runners, drawing on anecdotes from everyday athletes who improved through consistent, moderate-paced mileage. His 1970s articles in further disseminated these ideas, making a cornerstone of the era's running literature and emphasizing its psychological and physical accessibility over competitive speedwork. Complementing Henderson's contributions was the influence of New Zealand coach , whose methods in the 1960s and 1970s formalized as a foundational phase in elite . Lydiard prescribed extended aerobic runs—often up to 22 miles—to build a robust base before introducing intensity, a principle he applied successfully to athletes like , who won Olympic golds in the 800 meters at in 1960 and in 1964 under his guidance. Lydiard's approach, detailed in publications like Run to the Top (1967), influenced global coaching by demonstrating how enhanced recovery and performance in distance events. The jogging boom's media amplification included works like James F. Fixx's 1977 bestseller The Complete Book of Running, which portrayed slow, steady running as a safe gateway to and , selling over a million copies and inspiring widespread adoption of -like practices among non-elites. A key milestone came at the 1972 Munich Olympics, where American Frank Shorter's gold medal in the marathon—achieved through a high-mileage base—captivated audiences and symbolized the method's efficacy, igniting the U.S. running surge. By the , had become integrated into formal U.S. coaching frameworks, forming the aerobic foundation for distance training. LSD's global spread extended beyond running into other endurance sports like and by the late 1970s, as athletes adapted volume-focused principles to multisport disciplines. This cross-sport adoption underscored LSD's versatility, contributing to its enduring role in recreational and competitive training worldwide.

Training Implementation

Structuring LSD Sessions

Long slow distance (LSD) sessions are designed as standalone workouts that prioritize aerobic development through extended, low-intensity running. A typical structure begins with a 15- to 20-minute warm-up jog at an easy pace to gradually elevate and prepare muscles for sustained effort. This is followed by the core LSD phase of 90 minutes or longer at a conversational pace—approximately 60-70% of maximum or 1-3 minutes per mile slower than 10K pace—aiming to cover 10-20 miles for intermediate runners while maintaining a "pleasantly tired" sensation without undue strain. The session ends with a 15- to 20-minute cool-down jog or walk to promote circulation and recovery. Progression in LSD training follows a conservative model to build safely and minimize risk. Weekly increases of up to 10% in duration or mileage are recommended, allowing the body to adapt to higher volumes gradually—for instance, extending a 10-mile session to 11 miles the following week. Every fourth week incorporates a deload, reducing volume by 20-50% (e.g., cutting the long run to 6-8 miles) to enhance recovery, consolidate gains, and prevent . This approach, rooted in foundational endurance principles, ensures sustainable development over 8-12 weeks or longer. To further reduce the risk of overuse injuries such as shin splints and patellofemoral pain syndrome (runner's knee) during progressive mileage increases in LSD training, runners should incorporate strength training targeting the hips, core, glutes, quadriceps, calves, and ankles to improve stability, running mechanics, and knee alignment. Wearing properly fitted running shoes with good cushioning, arch support, and shock absorption, replaced every 300-500 miles, helps mitigate impact stress. Adjusting form by increasing cadence to approximately 170-180 steps per minute and shortening stride length reduces ground reaction forces on the lower extremities. Additional preventive strategies include thorough warm-ups, incorporating rest days and cross-training with low-impact activities (such as swimming or cycling), and preferring softer surfaces like trails or grass when possible. Maintaining low-intensity efforts ensures safer adaptation to higher training volumes. For optimal consistency in LSD sessions, flat trails or roads are preferred, as they facilitate steady pacing and minimize variations in effort that could elevate intensity beyond aerobic thresholds. Undulating with gentle hills can be incorporated sparingly—such as 10-20% of the route—to introduce minor strength benefits while preserving low zones, but steep inclines should be avoided to maintain the workout's focus on volume over power. Essential equipment for LSD sessions includes GPS watches or apps to track pace in real-time, ensuring adherence to the target effort and alerting runners to unintentional accelerations. For durations over 90 minutes, hydration is critical; strategies involve carrying handheld bottles, waist packs, or vests with 500-1000 mL of water or drinks, sipping every 15-20 minutes to replace fluids lost through sweat, especially in temperatures above 15°C (59°F). A practical weekly integration features one dedicated LSD run, often on weekends, as the primary volume builder. Beginners might start with 10 miles at an easy pace, progressing over 4-8 weeks to 12-15 miles with the 10% rule, while intermediates advance to 15-20 miles and advanced runners extend to 20-22 miles or more, always preceded by shorter recovery runs earlier in the week.

Integration with Other Methods

Long slow distance (LSD) training plays a central role in periodized programs for endurance athletes, typically comprising 80% or more of total during base-building phases to establish aerobic capacity before introducing higher intensities. In preparation periods, which often last 8-12 weeks, LSD dominates as athletes gradually increase by 5-15 km per week, reaching peaks of 130-220 km weekly for elites, while maintaining low intensity to minimize risk. As programs transition to phases, LSD's share reduces to around 40-60% of volume, allowing for a shift toward race-specific efforts while still providing recovery and aerobic support. LSD integrates effectively with interval and tempo sessions to foster speed-endurance, with programs often alternating one LSD session weekly alongside two higher-intensity workouts, such as threshold runs at lactate tolerance pace. This polarized approach, where accounts for 5-15% of volume, enhances VO2max and economy without overtaxing recovery, as seen in frameworks like Jack Daniels' Running Formula, which pairs easy LSD runs with targeted quality sessions to balance aerobic base and anaerobic development. In multisport contexts like , LSD runs are paired with equivalent low-intensity efforts on bike and swim—such as 3-5 hour rides or steady swims—to build discipline-specific stamina while distributing load across modalities and reducing overuse in any one area. For cyclists, LSD serves as active recovery following anaerobic intervals, promoting fat metabolism and mitochondrial efficiency to accelerate restoration after high-effort sessions. Beginner programs emphasize at 80% or more of total volume for 3-6 months to prioritize consistency and aerobic foundation, with shorter sessions (e.g., 30-60 minutes) and ample recovery to build tolerance gradually. athletes, conversely, incorporate strategically during recovery weeks post-competition, using it to sustain 450-700 annual hours while tapering intensity, allowing for higher overall volumes without burnout. Common frameworks include Arthur Lydiard's 8-12 week base blocks, where LSD forms the core of preparation phases focused on aerobic development before anaerobic integration, and adaptations from Daniels' formula, which embed LSD within polarized cycles to optimize progression across distances from 5K to marathons.

Physiological Aspects

Endurance Benefits

Long slow distance (LSD) training significantly enhances aerobic capacity in endurance athletes by increasing maximal oxygen uptake (), with studies showing typical improvements of 5-15% over 12 weeks of consistent application. This gain arises from central cardiovascular adaptations, including elevated and , which allow for greater oxygen delivery to working muscles during prolonged efforts. These physiological changes enable athletes to sustain higher workloads at submaximal intensities, forming the foundation for improved performance. A key benefit of LSD lies in its promotion of fat utilization efficiency as an energy source. At LSD paces, typically below the lactate threshold, trained athletes can derive 50-60% of their energy from fat oxidation, compared to higher carbohydrate reliance at faster speeds. This metabolic shift spares limited glycogen reserves for critical race segments, enhancing overall fuel economy and delaying fatigue in events like marathons. When implemented with gradual progression, the nature of LSD supports resilience against overuse injuries by allowing tissue adaptation, as recommended in (ACSM) guidelines limiting weekly volume increases to 10%. By minimizing biomechanical stress while building aerobic base, LSD supports sustainable volume increases when balanced with recovery. In terms of performance outcomes, incorporation of LSD in polarized training programs correlates with improvements in performance, with studies showing 3-6% better results compared to threshold training. For instance, studies on polarized training—featuring substantial LSD volume—demonstrate superior gains in time-trial performance over threshold-focused approaches. Seminal work by Véronique Billat from the to underscores these benefits, showing how LSD components in polarized regimens elevate aerobic markers and endurance economy in competitive athletes.

Limitations and Risks

While long slow distance (LSD) training can build an aerobic base, excessive reliance on it without incorporating higher-intensity sessions risks leading to stagnation, as aerobic adaptations such as improved mitochondrial density and capillary density tend to plateau after initial gains, typically within 6-12 months in trained athletes. This diminishing return occurs because the body adapts efficiently to consistent low-intensity stimuli, but further volume increases yield minimal additional benefits and may even impair recovery, as observed in rowers who showed no performance enhancement despite a 20% rise in training volume. The substantial time demands of sessions, often requiring 2-4 hours per week or more for meaningful volume, can be impractical for non-professional athletes balancing work or family obligations, increasing the likelihood of inconsistent adherence and eventual burnout. Traditional protocols, which emphasize , demand approximately 10.5 hours over two weeks compared to just 2.5 hours for high-intensity alternatives, highlighting the and fatigue accumulation that contribute to overtraining syndrome in recreational populations. Over-reliance on LSD without adequate variation or recovery heightens vulnerability to overuse injuries, particularly repetitive strain issues such as (ITBS), shin splints (medial tibial stress syndrome), and runner's knee (patellofemoral pain syndrome or anterior knee pain), due to the high cumulative mileage and repetitive impact involved in long-duration runs. ITBS, affecting 5-14% of runners, arises from friction and inflammation in the lateral from prolonged and flexion during extended low-speed running, and risks escalate if weekly mileage progression exceeds the recommended 10% increase to allow tissue adaptation. Shin splints and runner's knee are likewise common among endurance runners, often stemming from similar factors including excessive training volume, poor biomechanics, and inadequate equipment. These risks can be mitigated through evidence-based preventive measures, including gradual weekly mileage increases of no more than 10% to permit physiological adaptation, targeted strength training for the hips, core, glutes, quadriceps, and calves to enhance stability and running mechanics, use of supportive running shoes with adequate cushioning and arch support replaced regularly, increasing cadence to approximately 170-180 steps per minute to reduce impact forces, proper warm-up protocols, incorporation of rest days and cross-training, and preferring softer surfaces when possible. These strategies make higher-volume LSD training more sustainable and comfortable while reducing overuse injury incidence. Detailed guidance on applying these measures during session structuring is provided in the Training Implementation section. LSD training is inefficient for developing anaerobic capacity or at race-specific paces, as it primarily targets aerobic pathways without sufficiently stressing fast-twitch fibers or neuromuscular efficiency required for higher velocities. Meta-analyses of intensity distributions confirm that low-intensity approaches alone do not enhance anaerobic power or velocity-specific , with polarized models incorporating high-intensity intervals outperforming threshold or moderate for overall performance. Certain populations face contraindications for unmodified LSD protocols in specific conditions; for instance, unacclimatized athletes performing prolonged in hot environments risk elevated exertional , though heat acclimation phases involve controlled gradual exposure to build tolerance. Sprinters, who prioritize explosive power, derive little benefit from and may experience counterproductive slow-twitch fiber dominance or from mismatched training stimuli. For older athletes, modifications are essential, such as capping intensity at 70% of maximum to mitigate cardiovascular strain while preserving gains.

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