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Penalty (gridiron football)
Penalty (gridiron football)
Penalty (gridiron football)
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NFL back judge Lee Dyer retrieves a penalty flag on the field during a game on November 16, 2008 between the San Francisco 49ers and St. Louis Rams.

In gridiron football, a penalty is a sanction assessed against a team for a violation of the rules, called a foul.[1] Officials initially signal penalties by tossing a bright yellow colored penalty flag onto the field toward or at the spot of a foul.[2]

Many penalties result in moving the football toward the offending team's end zone, usually in 5 yard increments. Penalties may go as high as 25 yards depending on the penalty and league. Most penalties against the defensive team also result in the offense receiving an automatic first down, while a few penalties against the offensive team cause them to automatically lose a down.

In some cases, depending on the spot of the foul, the ball is moved half the distance to the goal line rather than the usual number of yards, or the defense scores an automatic safety.[3]

Rationale

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Because football is a high-contact sport requiring a balance between offense and defense, many rules exist that regulate equality, safety, contact, and actions of players on each team. It is very difficult to always avoid violating these rules without giving up too much of an advantage.[4] Thus, an elaborate system of fouls and penalties has been developed to "let the punishment fit the crime" and maintain a balance between following the rules and keeping a good flow of the game. For example, it is in large part because sacking the quarterback typically results in a loss of about ten yards, and because illegal holding is often committed by members of the offense in an effort to prevent the quarterback from being sacked, that the penalty for a holding foul is set at ten yards.

Players and coaches are constantly looking for ways to find an advantage that stretches the limitations imposed by the rules. For example, in 2016 the Baltimore Ravens had all of their offensive linemen commit holding penalties to allow the punter to keep possession of the ball so time would expire for a win, since the game can end on offensive penalties. However, the NFL changed the rules after this to prevent teams from manipulating the game clock in this way. The frequency and severity of fouls can make a large difference in the outcome of a game as well, so coaches are constantly looking for ways to minimize the number and severity of infractions committed by their players.

Often, the initial result of a play in which a foul is committed is of greater benefit to the non-offending team compared to the benefit of the penalty. For example, if the offense commits a holding foul, it would not be to the advantage of the defense to have the penalty assessed if in spite of the foul they sacked the quarterback for a twelve yard loss, especially considering the offense would have the chance to repeat the down if penalized for holding. Therefore, teams have the option of declining to have penalties assessed – when this occurs, the initial result of the play will stand. It is a common misconception that the term penalty is used to refer both to an infraction and the penal consequence of that infraction. A foul is a rule infraction (e.g. offensive holding) for which a penalty (e.g. move back 10 yards) is either assessed or declined.[5]

Signaling and announcing penalties

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History

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Penalties were originally signaled using whistles or horns. In 1943, college coach Dike Beede gave the first penalty flags to a 4-person crew led by Jack McPhee, who found the penalty flags clear and easy to use in noisy environments, which led to their eventual use in professional football in 1948.[6]

Today

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Officials initially signal fouls by tossing a bright yellow flag onto the field toward or at the spot of the foul. Until 2021, flags in Canadian football were orange.[7] Because of this, broadcasters and fans often use the terms "flag", "flag on the play", or "flag is down" to refer to fouls during the game.

During a play, multiple officials may flag the same foul, and multiple flags may be thrown for separate fouls on the same play. If applicable, the same official can signal additional fouls on a given play by throwing a beanbag or their cap. When officials throw a flag during a down, play does not stop until the ball becomes dead under normal conditions, as if there were no fouls.

Once the ball is dead, or immediately when a foul is called after a play is over or prior to a snap (since the ball is dead anyway), the referee, the officials who threw the flags and other officials with a view of the play confer on whether the initially alleged infraction is adjudged (after deliberation and consideration of the rule(s) and the infraction) to have actually been committed, what it was, and who committed it. The final determination and assessment of the penalty is the sole responsibility of the referee.[8] The referee then makes initial body signals to the press box indicating what fouls were committed and the team that committed them, the latter shown by extending the arm toward that team's end zone.[9]

The referee then confers with the offended team's on-field captain to find out whether the offended team would rather decline the penalty and take the result of the play.[10] The result of the play may be more advantageous to the offended team, especially, for example, if time is running out in the half and a 7-yard gain is a better option than a 5-yard penalty. However, the referee may not have to confer with the team captain because the choice is fairly obvious (such as when the defense commits a foul during a play in which the offense scores a touchdown).[11] After any final conference, the referee then makes full visual signals describing the foul in detail, consisting of: the foul that was committed, the team that committed it, whether or not the opposing team chooses to decline it, the resulting down or possession, and any other penalties such as disqualification (ejection) of a player from the game or a ten-second runoff from the game clock. In college football, the NFL and other professional leagues, and in some high school games, the referee also announces the fouls and their penalties over the stadium's public address system using a wireless microphone. In college and professional football, and high school in some states, the referee will also give out the jersey numbers of the player(s) who committed the fouls (on rare occasions, the player's position is announced in lieu of the jersey number). During these announcements, the referee usually does not use names of the respective teams or their cities, but rather will use the generic terms "offense", "defense", "kicking team", "receiving team", "passing team" etc. Some officials, especially in high school and lower levels, will refer to teams by their jersey color (e.g. "white", "red", "blue", etc.). By contrast, in the Canadian Football League (CFL), they are announced by their respective city or province.

The typical announcement follows this format: [foul], [team], [number(s) of the player(s) committing the foul], [distance], [next down: replay of down, loss of down, etc.].

  • NFL example: "Holding, defense number 52. Five-yard penalty, automatic first down." (Holding on defense gives an automatic first down for the offense.)
  • High school example: "Pass interference, defense. Half the distance to the goal line, repeat third down." (Defensive pass interference is not an automatic first down.)
  • CFL example: "Pass interference, Ottawa number 13. Ball will be placed at the spot of the foul, automatic first down." (The referee will sometimes repeat the announcement in French, depending on their fluency and the game's location.)

General types of penalty enforcement

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The following are general types of penalty enforcement. Specific rules will vary depending on the league, conference, and/or level of football.

Most penalties result in replaying the down and moving the ball toward the offending team's end zone. The distance is usually either 5, 10, or 15 yards depending on the penalty. However, such penalties, when enforced, are capped at half the distance to the offending team's goal line.[12]

Depending on the foul, the spot where the penalty is enforced may be at the spot of the foul; the previous spot (the line of scrimmage where the down began); the spot of the snap, fumble or backwards pass; or the succeeding spot (the line of scrimmage of the next down).[13]

Most defensive penalties give the offense an automatic first down. Conversely, some offensive penalties result in loss of a down (loss of the right to repeat the down). The offensive team receives a first down if a penalty by the defense awards them enough yardage to attain it.

Rules are asymmetrical in regard to whether a team can score directly as a result of a penalty. The offensive team typically cannot do so; if a foul that is penalized from the spot of the foul is called on the defense in its own end zone, the ball is placed on either the one-yard line or the two-yard line, and the offense must try to score from there. Exceptions (which are extremely rare at higher levels) can apply for egregious conduct known as palpably unfair acts e.g. someone entering the field to interfere with a player running towards the end zone with the ball. On the other hand, penalties called on the offense in its own end zone can result in the defense scoring a two-point safety.

If a team commits a foul during the last play of any quarter, the other team has the option to accept the penalty and extend the quarter one more play even with the clock showing 00:00 (i.e., an untimed play).

In American football, when multiple fouls occur, when both teams commit a foul during a play, regardless of severity, the fouls are usually offset and the down is replayed. However, the fouls must be committed in the same time frame. For instance, two fouls during the active play can offset, but a foul during the play and a personal foul after the whistle may not. Two personal fouls after the play can offset, although this is not often called. In the NFL, a major (15-yard) penalty by one team may not be offset by a minor (5-yard) penalty by the other team.[14] In the CFL, the penalty yardage is generally netted: a 15-yard penalty by one team and a 10-yard penalty by the other will result in 5 net yards of penalty enforcement.

The most serious fouls (for example, fighting or deliberately making contact with an official) will result in disqualification (i.e. the ejection of the player from the game) while some slightly less serious fouls (for example, unsportsmanlike conduct) can result in disqualification if committed by the same player or coach a certain number of times. Upon disqualification, the ejected player(s) must immediately leave the field of play including the bench area - typically, at any competitive level, a disqualified player is expected to return to his team's dressing room. Some fouls can lead to supplemental discipline after the game. At the professional level, even personal fouls not serious enough to warrant disqualification (including any not seen by the officials) will often result in fines. Particular attention in this regard is now taken with respect to blows to the head, due to the now-known long-term hazards concussions pose to players' health. A foul serious enough to warrant disqualification may result in a suspension for one or more games. This is especially true for fouls committed after the end of the game, since the usual penalties cannot be enforced then, or close to the end of the game especially if the winner is no longer in doubt.

Unlike in some sports, except when they are disqualified, players who commit fouls are not required to leave the field and may take part in the next play, other than in rare cases such as equipment violations where the player must return to the bench and remain there until the violation is corrected. Also, unlike in most other codes of football, there is no circumstance in which a gridiron team can be compelled to play with less than the regulation number of players on the field (eleven in American football and twelve in Canadian football) for any amount of time due to foul play. Even in the case of ejection(s), the disqualified player(s) may immediately be replaced for the next play.

Intentional fouls

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In certain situations, a team (specifically in the NFL) may intentionally commit a foul to receive a penalty that they see as advantageous. In general, the NFL—and other sanctioning bodies—do not permit intentional fouling in most circumstances and have taken efforts to close loopholes and negate any advantage that may have come from such a foul.[15]

  • Defensive pass interference may be committed in or near the end zone toward the end of a game to prevent a touchdown. This would place the ball at or near the goal line with a first down. The unfair act clause allows for a touchdown to be awarded in such situations and is explicitly recommended when such fouls are repeated.
  • Since a penalty will stop the clock, a team may commit a foul late in a game to stop the clock, particularly if they have no timeouts remaining. Some leagues have instituted a 10-second runoff to offset any advantage gained from this. (See below)
  • Deliberately injuring a dominant player to prevent them from playing. Even if the offending player is ejected from the game, fined or otherwise punished, if the offending player is of lower caliber than the player who was attacked, the opposing team will be irreparably harmed. The New Orleans Saints allegedly used this tactic on its way to winning Super Bowl XLIV, which was never revoked.[16][17][18]
  • In the waning minutes of a game, committing a foul such as holding results in the down being replayed, and while the clock stops after the play, the time that elapsed during the play still came off the clock, thus allowing teams to gain extra downs to run out the clock by fouling. The NFL closed this loophole in 2017, declaring this strategy to be unsportsmanlike conduct and resetting the clock to where it stood before the play.

There is one situation in which intentional fouling is generally tolerated: in the event that a team is on its fourth down and within the four-down territory—outside of field goal range but unlikely to gain meaningful yardage for a punt—the offense may take a five-yard dead ball foul such as delay of game or false start to back the offense up five yards and give the punter more space to land a punt within the red zone.

The ten-second runoff rule

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In the NFL and NCAA, a 10-second runoff is assessed if any of the following acts are committed in the last minute of either half/overtime (as of 2017, after the two-minute warning in the NFL):[19]

  1. A foul by either team that prevents the ball from being snapped
  2. Intentional grounding
  3. Illegal forward pass beyond the line of scrimmage
  4. Throwing a backwards pass out of bounds
  5. Any other intentional act by the offense that causes the clock to stop

The 10-second penalty does not apply if:

  1. The clock is stopped when the ball is set for play and will not start until the ball is snapped.
  2. If the team committing the foul has timeouts and elects to use one in lieu of the runoff.
  3. If the offended team declines the runoff (which prevents the offense from committing fouls to intentionally run out the clock). They may elect to decline the runoff while accepting the yardage penalty but may not do the reverse.

Moreover, the game clock will run once the ball is placed. If such a runoff occurs with 10 seconds or less remaining, the half/overtime automatically ends. Since the enforcement of the 10-second runoff, eight regular season NFL games have had a half end automatically due to this rule. Notable examples include: 2011 Chicago–Oakland game ended after Caleb Hanie was charged for intentional grounding penalty near the end of the game; a 2012 New England–Seattle game in which the first half ended after Tom Brady was charged with the same penalty Hanie suffered the year before, costing New England a field goal chance in a game they later lost by only 1 point; a 2014 St. Louis–Tampa Bay game in which Tampa Bay lost a chance to attempt a game-winning field goal due to Mike Evans suffering an injury with no timeouts left; a 2015 New England–New York Jets game in which New York lost an attempt to throw a Hail Mary pass to tie or win the game because Brandon Marshall was assessed a false start penalty with 1 second left in the game; and a 2017 Atlanta–Detroit game in which Detroit fell short of a game-winning touchdown due to a reversal via a replay that stopped the clock with 8 seconds remaining. A pre-season game in 2006 between Houston and Kansas City had the first half end automatically due to an intentional grounding foul with less than 10 seconds left. More importantly, a 2013 divisional playoff game between the New Orleans Saints and the Seattle Seahawks also ended on a 10-second runoff after Saints wide receiver Marques Colston threw an illegal forward pass.

Starting in 2011, the NCAA adopted a similar 10-second penalty rule for college football. Like the NFL rule, it applies in the last minute of each half, but the NCAA rule differs in that it applies to fouls by either side that cause a clock stoppage. Like the NFL rule, the team that benefits from the penalty may elect to take both the yardage and the runoff, the yardage alone, or neither (but not the runoff in lieu of yards). The penalized team may elect to take a charged timeout in order to avoid the runoff.[20]

The NCAA rule was passed in response to the end of the 4th quarter in the 2010 Music City Bowl. In that game, the North Carolina Tar Heels were down 20–17 at the end of the 4th quarter, and because they had no timeouts, they spiked the ball to stop the clock with 1 second left while too many men were on the field due to confusion about whether the field goal unit needed to come on the field. Because college football did not yet have the 10-second runoff, UNC was penalized 5 yards but was still able to kick the field goal to send the game to overtime, since the foul caused the clock to stop with time remaining. UNC won the game.

In both the NFL and NCAA, a 10-second runoff is assessed if the game is stopped in the final two minutes of either half/overtime for an instant replay review, and the review determines the clock would not have stopped otherwise. This provision was used near the end of regulation in the 2018 LSU vs. Texas A&M game. An interception by LSU's Grant Delpit was overruled when it was determined Texas A&M quarterback Kellen Mond retrieved a bad snap with his right knee on the ground, ending the play. After the ball was re-spotted and the clock reset, 10 seconds were deducted and the clock restarted on the ready-for-play signal. In this situation, either team may call a time-out to prevent the runoff that neither team can decline.

List of penalties

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In the NFL, most defensive penalties result in an automatic first down: the offense is given a first down regardless of how many yards they have moved since their last first down, including the penalty. The exceptions are offside, encroachment, neutral zone infraction, delay of game, illegal substitution, calling excess timeouts, running into a kicker, and having more than 11 men on the field. In these cases, the appropriate yardage penalty is assessed, and a first down is given only if the net yardage by the offense since the last first down, including the penalty, is at least ten yards; if not, there is a repeat of down.[21]

Foul Description Signal Penalty Yardage
NFL NCAA HS CFL
Blocking below the waist An illegal block, from any direction, below the waist by any defensive player or by an offensive player under certain situations, by any player after change of possession, by any player in high school with certain exceptions. Sometimes incorrectly referred to as a "chop block". (American) Both hands brought down, wrists turned inward, in a chopping motion across the front of the thighs
(Canadian) Same as unnecessary roughness; it is a subset of that penalty 		15 yards; automatic first down if committed by the defense 15 yards; automatic first down if committed by the defense 15 yards 15 yards; automatic first down if committed by the defense
Block in the back
(offense, defense, or special teams) 		A blocker contacting a non-ballcarrying member of the opposing team from behind and above the waist. Called an "illegal block" in the CFL. One arm extended horizontally in front of the body, palm facing outward. The other hand grasps the first hand's wrist and pushes outward 10 yards 10 yards 10 yards 10 yards
Chop block
("high-low" block; offense) 		An offensive player tries to cut block a defensive player that is already being blocked by another offensive player. The second block may need to be below the thigh or knee, depending on the code. (American) The signal for a personal foul (except in high school), followed by: Arms extended alongside the body, palms facing outward, then moving in to the upper thigh in a chopping motion.
(Canadian) Both hands held out flat, facing each other, in front of the referee, moving down together diagonally roughly from one shoulder to the opposite hip. 		15 yards (if it is in the end zone the play will be ruled a safety); automatic first down if committed by defense (penalty also counts regardless of how many yards the offense gained). 15 yards; automatic first down if committed by defense (penalty also counts regardless of how many yards the offense gained). 15 yards 15 yards; automatic first down if committed by defense
Clipping
(offense, defense, or special teams; also known as a "crackback") 		A blocker contacting a non-ballcarrying opponent from behind and at or below the waist The signal for a personal foul (except in high school), followed by: Chopping the back of one thigh with the hand. 15 yards; automatic first down if committed by defense 15 yards; automatic first down if committed by defense 15 yards 15 yards; automatic first down if committed by defense
Contacting the kicker Any contact with the kicker when in the act of kicking, unless the ball has touched the ground (as in a bad snap), the defender touches the ball, contact by a blocker causes the contact, or the contact is slight or incidental. Touching a raised leg below the knee See roughing the kicker or running into the kicker See roughing the kicker or running into the kicker See roughing the kicker or running into the kicker 10 yards
Delay of game
(offense, defense, or special teams) 		Any action which delays the next play. In American football, on offense, this includes failing to snap the ball before the play clock reaches zero. (In the CFL, that action is a time count violation.) It may also include spiking the ball.
On defense, it occurs when a player hinders the offense in hurrying to make the next snap. This happens most often in the last two minutes of a half when the offense is trying to go down the field in a hurry. The defense can also be flagged for a delay of game if a player spikes the ball after the end of a play.
On special teams, it happens when the return team runs after signaling for a fair catch, or the defense does not unpile in a timely manner after the play ends. 		(American) Upper arms extended out from the body, forearms bent toward the opposite arm, such that the arms lie on top of one another or that each arm touches the opposite shoulder.
(Canadian) Both hands behind the back, resting roughly at the waist, so that the elbows extend out from the side of the body 		5 yards 5 yards 5 yards 10 yards
Encroachment
(offense or defense) 		Before the snap, a defensive player illegally crosses the line of scrimmage and makes contact with an opponent or has a clear path to the quarterback. In NCAA, this includes an offensive player being in or beyond the neutral zone after the snapper has put his hands on the ball. In high school, this includes any crossing of the neutral zone by either team, whether contact is made or not. The play is not allowed to begin. In the CFL, this is also called "offside". Two hands placed on the hips 5 yards 5 yards 5 yards 5 yards
Equipment violation Any player in the game without necessary safety equipment (mouthpiece, pads), without chin straps properly fastened or in violation of certain clothing rules (e.g. sock requirements in college). (American) One hand placed on the back of the head — Timeout charged against the offending player's team Timeout charged against the offending player's team, or if the team is out of timeouts, the player is removed from the game for one play or until the equipment is fixed 10 yards and removal of the player from the game for three downs. If the equipment is deemed hazardous, 15 yards and disqualification.
Face mask
(offense, defense, or special teams) 		Grasping the face mask of another player while attempting to block or tackle him. In the NFL, the grasping and pulling/twisting must be intentional to be penalized. Under NCAA rules, it is a foul to grasp and twist the face mask. Under high school rules, any grasping of the face mask, any helmet opening, or the chin strap is a foul, though grasping and twisting carries a more severe penalty than "incidental" grasping without any twisting. The signal for a personal foul (except for incidental grasping in high school), followed by: One arm in front of the body, forearm extended vertically. The hand is closed into a fist in front of the face and pulled downward 15 yards; automatic first down if committed by defense 15 yards; automatic first down if committed by defense 15 yards for grasping and twisting, 5 yards for incidental grasping 15 yards; automatic first down if committed by defense
False start
(offense) 		An offensive player illegally moves after lining up for—but prior to—the snap. Since the ball is dead, the down does not begin.
Any player who moves after he has gotten in his set position before the snap in a way that simulates the start of the play. Called "[illegal] procedure" in the CFL. 		Two arms in front of chest horizontally with closed fists "rolling" around each other (same signal that basketball referees use to signal traveling). 5 yards 5 yards 5 yards 5 yards
Helmet-to-helmet collision
(offense or defense) 		The act of banging one's helmet into the helmet of another player. see Targeting, below see Targeting, below 15 yards see Unnecessary roughness, below
Helping the runner When a member of the offensive or receiving team pushes, pulls, grasps or lifts a person in possession of the ball. Also known as "assisting the runner," the penalty is extremely rare, having last been called at the NFL level in 1991.[22] Arms at sides, the forearms are pulled upward perpendicular to the torso. 10 yards 5 yards 5 yards —
Holding
(offense or defense) 		Illegally grasping or pulling an opponent other than the ball carrier while attempting to ward off a block or cover a receiver. One of the most commonly called penalties. If a penalty for holding that occurred in the offense's end zone is accepted, a safety results. Raising one arm in front of the body (forearm is roughly vertical with elbow at bottom) and grabbing its wrist with the opposite hand Offense, 10 yards. If it is called in the end zone by the offense, it's an automatic safety; defense, 5 yards and automatic first down. 10 yards 10 yards 10 yards
Horse-collar tackle Illegally tackling another player by grabbing the inside of the ball carrier's shoulder pads or jersey from behind and yanking the player down. (American) The signal for a personal foul (except in high school), followed by: Raising one arm to the side of the body with the elbow bent, so that the closed fist is near the neck. The fist is then pulled away, horizontally, from the neck.
(Canadian) Same as unnecessary roughness; it is a subset of that penalty 		15 yards, automatic first down if committed by defense (penalty also counts regardless of how many yards the offense gained). 15 yards, automatic first down if committed by defense (penalty also counts regardless of how many yards the offense gained). 15 yards 15 yards
Illegal batting
(offense) 		Any intentional batting of a loose ball or ball in player possession. Batting is legal in certain limited situations, such as blocking a kick or deflecting a forward pass (any eligible player may bat a forward pass in any direction). (NFL) Both arms extended the side, with the fingertips brought up to the shoulder of the respective arms.
(NCAA/HS) One arm extended the side, with the fingertips brought up to the shoulder of the same arm. 		10 yards 10 yards 15 yards see Offside pass, below
Illegal contact
(defense) 		Making significant contact with a receiver after the receiver has advanced five yards beyond the line of scrimmage. The illegal contact is called only if the quarterback is still in pocket and the ball is still in his hands. This rule was adopted in 1978, and its enactment is regarded as contributing to the increase in passing efficiency the NFL has witnessed since that time. One arm in front of the body with palm out and fingers up, moved in a pushing motion out 5 yards and an automatic first down Does not exist Does not exist 10 yards
Illegal fair catch signal
(receiving team) 		A receiver for a punt or kick return signals a "fair catch" by waving his hand in the air before catching the ball, and running after the catch was made. The return is neutralized, and the penalty is deducted from where the receiver caught the ball. Arm raised in the air, before waving it and dropping it back down, similar to the fair catch signal 5 yards, enforced where receiver catches the ball 5 yards, enforced where receiver catches the ball 5 yards, enforced where receiver catches the ball 5 yards, enforced where receiver catches the ball
Illegal formation Fewer than seven players line up on the line of scrimmage (NFL/CFL); more than four players in the backfield (NCAA/HS); eligible receivers fail to line up as the leftmost and rightmost players on the line (NFL/CFL); or when five properly numbered ineligible players fail to line up on the line. Can also be called on the defense/receiving team in the NFL on field goal attempts if they have more than six players on the line on either side of the snapper. Announced as "[illegal] procedure" or "procedure, no end" in the CFL. Two arms in front of chest with closed fists "rolling" around each other (same signal that basketball referees use to signal traveling) 5 yards 5 yards 5 yards 5 yards
Illegal forward pass
(offense) 		A forward pass is thrown from past the line of scrimmage. Also, a second forward pass is thrown on the same play or a forward pass is thrown after change of possession (American; those are treated as offside passes in the CFL). (American) One hand, flat, waved behind the small of the back
(Canadian) One arm in front of chest, palm open and down, with the elbow out to the side, moved away from chest 		5 yards from the spot of the foul and loss of down 5 yards from the spot of the foul and loss of down 5 yards from the spot of the foul and loss of down 10 yards from the spot of the foul (the down is repeated)
Illegal hands to the face Pushing or hitting a player on offense in the head or helmet (NFL/NCAA) One open fist in a pushing motion to the referee's chin; (HS) Same signal as holding 10 yards if committed by offense; 5 yards and automatic first down if committed by defense 15 yards (personal foul); automatic first down if committed by defense (penalty also counts regardless of how many yards the offense gained). 10 yards —
Illegal kick Any ball not kicked in accordance with the rules, for instance:
  • When an attempted drop kick bounces more than once before being kicked
  • When a player kicks the ball after a turnover or receiving an opponent's kick (the "return kick")
  • When a player kicks the ball after having advanced the ball past the line of scrimmage

All of the above kicks are legal in Canadian football.

Right arm is curled so that the hand touches the shoulder. 15 yards 10 yards 15 yards —
Illegal kickoff
(special teams) 		The ball, after a kickoff, heads out of bounds between both goal lines without touching any player on either team. Two arms in front of chest with closed fists "rolling" around each other (same signal that basketball referees use to signal traveling).
(Canadian) Same signal, plus a swinging motion of the leg to simulate a kick 		Receiving team awarded possession 25 yards from spot of kickoff, or at spot out of bounds, whichever is more advantageous. Five yards from the previous spot (with the kick retaken); or five yards from the spot where the subsequent dead ball belongs to the receiving team; or the receiving team may put the ball in play 30 yards beyond the kicking team's restraining line. Five yards from the previous spot (with the kick retaken); or five yards from the spot where the subsequent dead ball belongs to the receiving team; or the receiving team may put the ball in play 30 yards beyond the kicking team's restraining line. Five yards from the previous spot (with the kick retaken); or the spot where the subsequent dead ball belongs to the receiving team; or the receiving team may put the ball in play 35 yards from the spot of kickoff.
Illegal motion
(offense) 		A player in motion is moving forward at the time of the snap. One arm in front of chest, palm open and down, with the elbow out to the side, moved away from chest. 5 yards 5 yards 5 yards Not a foul
Illegal participation/Too many players Twelve (CFL: 13) or more players participate during the play, because the extra players either are not detected before the snap or enter during the play. Once the down begins, no further players may enter the field and participate, even if there are fewer than 11 (CFL: 12) players. Illegal participation is also called when an offensive player goes out of bounds (unless forced out by contact by the defense) and returns during the play. Two hands, palms down, touching the top of the head, with an elbow out to each side 5 yards 5 yards 15 yards 10 yards
Illegal shift A player is not in motion but is not set before the snap; more than one player is in motion at the snap; or after more than one player was moving (shifting), all eleven players have not been motionless for one second. Two arms in front of chest, palms open and down, with the elbows out to the side, moved away from chest 5 yards 5 yards 5 yards Not a foul
Illegal substitution/Substitution infraction/Too many players in the formation The offense has 12 (CFL: 13) or more players in the huddle for a period of 3–5 seconds; or twelve or more players are in the formation before a play; or a player is attempting to leave the field as the ball is snapped; or an offensive player entering the field fails to step at least nine yards from the sideline (inside the field's yardage numbers) before the snap; or a player who has been suspended or disqualified attempts to enter the field of play. (NCAA/High School) Arm along the side of the body with the palm of the hand touching the opposite shoulder; (NFL/CFL) two hands, palms down, touching the top of the head, with an elbow out to each side 5 yards 5 yards 5 yards 5 yards
Illegal touching of a forward pass
(offense) 		A forward pass first touches an ineligible receiver (e.g., an offensive lineman). If the ball is touched by the defenders first, any player may touch it. One hand held up to shoulder, fingertips touching the shoulder; (NFL) two hands held up to shoulders, fingertips touching the shoulders;

(CFL) both arms extended sideways

5 yards (if touched by an originally ineligible receiver) / loss of down (if touched by an originally eligible receiver who voluntarily or involuntarily went out of bounds) 5 yards (if touched by an originally ineligible receiver) / 5 yards and loss of down (if touched by an originally eligible receiver who voluntarily went out of bounds) 5 yards and a loss of down 10 yards
Illegal touching of a free kick
(special teams) 		The ball, after the free kick, first touches a member of the kicking team prior to travelling 10 yards. This is most often seen on an onside kick where a member of the kicking team prematurely comes in contact with the ball in an attempt to recover it. Like illegal touching of a forward pass, if a defender (member of the receiving team) first touches the ball, any player may touch it. Note: in NFHS it is called 'first touching', not 'illegal touching'.

It is also illegal touching for a kicking team player to touch a free kick after going out of bounds, unless the kick is touched by the receiving team.

One hand held up to shoulder, fingertips touching the shoulder; (NFL) two hands held up to shoulders, fingertips touching the shoulders. 5 yards, unless the illegal touching occurs inside the receiving team's 5 yard line. In that case, it is ruled a touchback. Five yards from the previous spot, or five yards from the spot where the subsequent dead ball belongs to the receiving team, or from the spot where the ball is placed after a touchback. Not a foul.
Receiving team may take possession at the spot of touching unless it commits a foul. 		—
Illegal touching of a scrimmage kick
(special teams) 		The ball, during the scrimmage kick, is touched by a kicking team player, unless the kick is touched by the receiving team or another member of the kicking team. One hand held up to shoulder, fingertips touching the shoulder (NFL); two hands held up to shoulders, fingertips touching the shoulders (NCAA). — Not a foul. Receiving team has the option of taking possession at the spot of illegal touching unless it commits a foul. Not a foul (called "first touching" in the NFHS rulebook).

Receiving team may take possession at the spot of first touching unless it commits a foul.

see No yards
Illegal use of hands Illegal use of the hands against a player on offense while attempting to ward off a block, cover a receiver, or tackle a ball carrier. There are several restrictions on how a defender may initiate contact. One forearm vertically held in front of the body with an open fist facing away from the referee's chest (closed fist for a HS referee); the other hand grasping the first arm's wrist 10 yards if committed by offense; 5 yards and automatic first down if committed by defense 10 yards, automatic first if committed by defense against an eligible receiver 10 yards —
Ineligible receiver downfield
(offense) 		An ineligible receiver is past the line of scrimmage prior to a forward pass. Ineligible receivers must wait until the pass is thrown beyond the line of scrimmage (or touched) before moving past the line of scrimmage. This exception has been added to accommodate the screen pass, where a receiver (most often a back, but sometimes a tight end or wide receiver) catches a ball behind the line of scrimmage behind a "screen" of offensive linemen. One palm touching the top of the head with the elbow out to the side. 5 yards 5 yards 5 yards —
Intentional grounding
(offense) 		A forward pass is thrown intentionally incomplete so that the passer avoids loss of yardage or to conserve time. Not assessed if the ball is spiked. If the quarterback has moved outside of the area between his offensive tackles (the tackle box or more commonly called "the pocket"), there is no foul for grounding the ball if the quarterback throws the ball past the line of scrimmage. Both hands held out flat, facing each other, in front of the referee, moving down together diagonally roughly from one shoulder to the opposite hip. 10 yards or spot of foul, whichever is farther from the original line of scrimmage, and loss of down. If the foul occurs in the end zone, the play is ruled a safety. Spot of foul and loss of down (safety if the foul occurs in the end zone). 5 yards from the spot of the foul and loss of down (safety if the foul occurs in the end zone). —
Leaping
(defense) 		A defender at least one yard in front of the line of scrimmage running forward and leaping in an attempt to block a field goal or a point-after try lands on other players on either team. The penalty is not called if the defender was within one yard of the line of scrimmage at the time of the snap.[23] (NCAA) Same as Personal foul, it is a subset of that penalty.[24](NFL) Same as Unsportsmanlike conduct, it is a subset of that penalty 15 yard penalty; automatic first down if committed by defense (penalty also counts regardless of how many yards the offense gained). 15 yard penalty; automatic first down if committed by defense (penalty also counts regardless of how many yards the offense gained). — —
Leverage
(defense) 		A defensive player jumping or standing on a teammate or an opponent to block or attempt to block an opponent's kick.[25] (NCAA/NFL) Same as Unsportsmanlike conduct, it is a subset of that penalty 15 yard penalty and automatic first down 15 yards — —
Major foul (Canadian) — — — — — See personal foul, the equivalent foul in American football
Neutral Zone Infraction
(defense) 		Before the snap, a defensive player (most often a lineman) jumps into the neutral zone and "startles" an offensive player, causing him to false start. Same as encroachment/offside 5 yards 5 yards 5 yards —
No yards (special teams) (Canadian) During a scrimmage kick, a member of the kicking team, other than the kicker or a player even with or behind the kicker at the time of the kick, is the first to touch a kicked ball or is within a five-yard radius of the receiving player who is first to touch the ball. Upper arms extended out from the body, forearms bent toward the opposite arm, such that the arms lie on top of one another or that each arm touches the opposite elbow. see Kick catching interference or Illegal touching of a scrimmage kick see Kick catching interference or Illegal touching of a scrimmage kick see Kick catching interference or Illegal touching of a scrimmage kick 15 yards;
5 yards, for violation of the five-yard radius after a kick has touched the ground and bounced back toward the spot of the kick
Objectionable conduct (Canadian) — — — — — See unsportsmanlike conduct, the equivalent foul in American football
Offside A player is on the wrong side of the line of scrimmage (or in the neutral zone) when the ball is snapped. This foul occurs simultaneously with the snap. Unlike offensive players, defensive players are not compelled to come to a set position before the snap. If a defender jumps across the line but gets back to his side before the snap, there is no foul. In the case of an offside foul, play is not stopped, and the foul is announced at the conclusion of the play. Media covering the games call it a "free play" for the offense, as the non-offending team may decline the penalty and take the yardage gained on the play (and when the play works against them, like a turnover to the opposing team, the non-offending team can accept the penalty and retake possession of the ball) - unlike in the case of a false start foul against the offense, whereupon the play is immediately stopped by the officials.

This foul is almost always committed by the defense (any offensive player that moves into the neutral zone after setting would be charged with a false start). In NCAA and NFL, a player of the kicking team on a free kick is offside if he is in front of the ball at the time of the kick. However, it is possible for the offense to commit this foul. In the NFL, if an offensive player lines up in the neutral zone, an offside foul will be called against the offense. In the CFL, if an offensive player is beyond the line of scrimmage at the snap, an offside foul will be called against the offense. 		Two hands placed on the hips 5 yards 5 yards Not applicable (see Encroachment) 5 yards
Offside pass Any act to direct the ball forward (toward the opponent's dead/end line) other than a kick or a forward pass. This includes batting the ball and forward passes after change of possession. One arm in front of chest, palm open and down, with the elbow out to the side, moved away from chest see Illegal batting or Illegal forward pass, above see Illegal batting or Illegal forward pass, above see Illegal batting or Illegal forward pass, above No yardage penalty; the down counts, and the ball is next snapped where the pass originated
Pass interference
(offense or defense) 		Making physical contact with an intended receiver (intentional physical contact in NFL), after the ball has been thrown and before it has been touched by another player, in order to hinder or prevent him from catching a forward pass.
(On offense, the restriction begins at the snap and continues until the ball is touched in order to prevent receivers from blocking defenders away from a passed ball.) 		Both arms extended in front of the body, palms upright, in a pushing motion Offense, 10 yards; defense, spot of foul (or placement on the 1 yard line if the foul occurs in the end zone) and automatic first down Offense, 15 yards; defense, lesser of 15 yards or the spot of the foul (or placement on the 2 yard line if the foul occurs in the end zone) and automatic first down 15 yards, regardless of whether or not the foul is in the end zone. Beginning with the 2013 season, the down is replayed, unless the ball is beyond the line to gain after enforcement; the penalty no longer includes an automatic first down (defensive interference) or loss of down (offensive).[26] Offense: 10 yards; Defense: spot of foul (or placement on the 1 yard line if the foul occurs in the end zone) and automatic first down, or 10 yards and automatic first down if judged accidental
Personal foul
(offense or defense)
(Major foul in Canadian football) 		A conduct- or safety-related infraction. Includes unnecessary roughness, such as hitting a ball carrier after he is already out of bounds, "piling on" a ball carrier who is already down, or violent contact with an opponent who is away from and out of the play. In American football, if the officials decide that the action was particularly flagrant, the player in question can be ejected from the game. (In Canadian football, such a flagrant act is a rough play foul.) The CFL also has a "Grade 2 Unnecessary Roughness" foul for direct contact to a passer's head or neck area or spearing to an opponent's head or neck. One arm extended from the body and bent at the elbow; the forearm is tilted at an angle, so the wrist is roughly in front of the collarbone but at a distance from the body. The other arm is brought down in a chopping motion, striking the first arm wrist-to-wrist.
(Canadian) One arm extended to the side of the body in a pumping motion 		15 yards; automatic first down if committed by defense (penalty also counts regardless of how many yards the offense gained). 15 yards; automatic first down if committed by defense (penalty also counts regardless of how many yards the offense gained). 15 yards 15 yards; automatic first down if committed by defense (penalty also counts regardless of how many yards the offense gained). For Grade 2 Unnecessary Roughness: as described above but 25 yards instead of 15, and the offender is disqualified for a second such foul.
Punt out of bounds in flight
(special teams) 		A scrimmage kick goes out of bounds in flight untouched by the receiving team between the 20 yard lines. Two arms in front of chest with closed fists "rolling" around each other, plus a swinging motion of the leg to simulate a kick Not a foul Not a foul Not a foul 10 yards from either the previous line of scrimmage with the down replayed or from the point the ball went out of bounds with the receiving team taking possession.
Rough play A flagrant conduct- or safety infraction. Includes fighting, punching, and intentional contact with an official. One arm extended from the body and bent at the elbow; the forearm is tilted downward, so that the wrist is roughly in front of the waist but at a distance from the body. The other arm is brought down in a chopping motion, striking the first arm wrist-to-wrist. Not applicable (see Personal foul) Not applicable (see Personal foul) Not applicable (see Personal foul) 25 yards and disqualification of the offender; automatic first down if committed by defense (penalty also counts regardless of how many yards the offense gained).
Roughing the passer
(defense) 		A defender continues an effort to tackle or "hit" a passer after the passer has already thrown a pass. (In the NFL, a defender is allowed to take one step after the ball is thrown; a defender is penalized if he hits the passer having taken two or more steps after the ball leaves the passer's hand, or if the passer is hit above the shoulders, or if the passer is targeted using the crown of the helmet.) The signal for a personal foul (except in high school), followed by: Open-fist arm extended above same-side shoulder, brought diagonally downward towards the opposite side waist. 15 yards and an automatic first down (penalty also counts regardless of how many yards the offense gained). 15 yards and an automatic first down (penalty may be enforced from the end of the run if the pass is completed; otherwise, penalty is enforced from the previous spot). 15 yards and an automatic first down (penalty may be enforced from the end of the run if the pass is completed; otherwise, penalty is enforced from the previous spot). 15 yards and an automatic first down (penalty also counts regardless of how many yards the offense gained). Penalty upgraded to 25 yards if the contact is a direct blow to the passer's head or neck.
Roughing the kicker
(special teams) 		A defender, having missed an attempt to block a kick, tackles the kicker or otherwise runs into the kicker in a way that might injure the kicker or his vulnerable extended kicking leg. This protection is also extended to the holder of a place kick. In the CFL, the standard is unnecessary roughness against the punter, kicker, or holder. The signal for a personal foul (American) or major foul (CFL), followed by: Leg moved in a kicking motion. 15 yards and an automatic first down if committed by defense 15 yards and an automatic first down if committed by defense 15 yards and an automatic first down 15 yards and an automatic first down
Roughing the snapper
(special teams) 		On a punt or field goal attempt, the long snapper is allowed to regain his balance and assume a protective position before he is contacted by the defense. — 15 yards and an automatic first down 15 yards and an automatic first down 15 yards and an automatic first down —
Running into the kicker
(special teams) 		On a kicking play where the defense fails to touch ("block") the kicked ball, the defense runs into the kicker/punter. If such an act occurs but is not intentional, this foul is assessed. If intentional, the personal foul of roughing the kicker is assessed instead (see above). Extending one leg, straight, up to about a 20 degree angle in front of the body. 5 yards 5 yards 5 yards 10 yards

(see contacting the kicker)

Sideline infraction A player is outside of the team box, a coach is outside the coaches' box (along the sideline in front of the team box), or too many coaches are in the coaches' box. (In high school, the penalty for a coach on the field of play is unsportsmanlike conduct, not a sideline infraction.) Arms bent and extended to both sides, hands waved forward and backward in a pushing motion.
Interference (NFHS): Both hands placed behind the back. 		N/A 5 yards (first infraction)
15 yards (subsequent infractions, also unsportsmanlike conduct) 		No yardage (first infraction—warning)
5 yards (second infraction—interference)
15 yards (subsequent infractions—unsportsmanlike conduct, interference) 		—
Spearing
(offense or defense) 		Tackling or otherwise contacting an opponent with one's helmet. (This technique is illegal because of the risk of neck injuries to the tackler.) The signal for a personal foul (except in high school), followed by: Arm extended, bent at the elbow, touching the side of his head with a closed fist 15 yards; automatic first down if committed by defense. Penalty also counts regardless of how many yards the offense gained. (Starting from 2017 season, this foul is no longer referred to as spearing in the NFL rulebook, but as "targeting with the crown of the helmet".) 15 yards; automatic first down if committed by defense (this foul is no longer referred to as spearing in the NCAA rulebook, but as "targeting with the crown of the helmet") 15 yards 15 yards; 25 yards if the contact is with the opponent's head or neck
Targeting A defensive player tackles with the crown of his helmet, by initiating contact to the opponent's head above the player's neck, or makes helmet-to-helmet collision. Under NFL and NCAA rules, also applies when an offensive player initiates the same types of contact. The signal for a personal foul (except in high school), followed by: One arm bent to form a triangle, fist pointing at head. 15 yards, ejection; if penalty occurs in second half, player is suspended for the first half of his team's next game. Penalty subject to video review. If hit is not deemed to be targeting by the video review, player allowed to stay in the game and yardage not enforced. 15 yards, ejection; if penalty occurs in second half, player is suspended for the first half of his team's next game. Penalty subject to video review. If hit is not deemed to be targeting by the video review, player allowed to stay in the game and yardage not enforced. 15 yards —
Time count violation On offense, failing to snap the ball before the play clock reaches zero One arm extended out nearly horizontally and moved in a circular motion see Delay of game above see Delay of game above see Delay of game above Before the three-minute warning in either half, or during convert attempts at any time: 5 yards
After the three-minute warning and on first or second down: loss of down
After the three-minute warning and on third down: 10 yards, or loss of possession if judged intentional by the referee
Too many men — — — — — See Illegal participation, the equivalent foul in American football
Too many men in formation — — — — — See Illegal substitution, the equivalent foul in American football
Tripping A player trips another player with the lower leg. One foot kicks the ankle of the other leg from behind 10 yards, automatic first down if committed by defense. 15 yards, automatic first down, and possible disqualification if committed by defense. 15 yards —
Unfair act Any illegal action in which the penalty is insufficient to offset the result of the act. The NFL rule (known as a palpably unfair act) also requires that the opposing team would have scored had the illegal act not happened, which is not required at the college or high school levels.

In high school only, committing repeated fouls that halve the distance to the goal is explicitly defined as an unfair act.

— Yardage or score at discretion of referee, possible disqualification. In the case of an extraordinarily unfair act, the NFL Commissioner has the sole authority to conduct an investigation and take appropriate disciplinary and/or corrective measures. The latter include monetary fines, draft-choice forfeitures, suspension, re-playing the game, and reversal of the game result. Any penalty at discretion of referee, up to and including forfeiture of the game. Any penalty at discretion of referee, up to and including forfeiture of the game. —
Unsportsmanlike conduct (Objectionable conduct in Canadian football) Any person (usually a player but occasionally a coach and very rarely one or more spectators) acts or speaks in a manner deemed to be intentionally harmful or especially objectionable by the game officials, or by rule. Unsportsmanlike conduct is a non-contact foul; if contact is involved it becomes a personal foul. Examples include verbal abuse of officials, and taunting, which, since 2004 in the NFL, has included any "prolonged and premeditated celebrations" by players (prior to that year the latter carried only a 5-yard penalty). Later rules included using the football or end zone pylon in a touchdown celebration. If the officials decide that the action was particularly flagrant, the player, coach or spectator in question may be ejected from the game. In high school, if a single player, coach or spectator commits two unsportsmanlike conduct fouls, the person in question should automatically be ejected, a rule adopted by the NFL in 2016. (American) Both arms extended to the sides perpendicular to the body with open fists, palms down. (Canadian) One hand placed behind the back at the waist. 15 yards, automatic first down if committed by defense (penalty also counts regardless of how many yards the offense gained). 15 yards, automatic first down if committed by defense (penalty also counts regardless of how many yards the offense gained). As of 2011, if the foul was committed (1) during a play that ended in a touchdown, (2) before the ball crossed the goal line, and (3) by the team that scored, the touchdown is nullified, and the penalty is assessed from the spot of the foul.[20] 15 yards 10 yards

See also

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References

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Penalty (gridiron football)

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In , a penalty is a prescribed sanction for a rule infraction committed by a player or during play, enforced by officials to promote fair competition and player safety, typically resulting in yardage loss from a designated spot, loss of a down, automatic first downs for the opposing , or disqualification in severe cases. Penalties are signaled by officials throwing yellow flags onto the field during live play and are announced audibly with arm gestures to indicate the type, such as holding or offsides; enforcement follows standardized procedures based on the foul's timing (live-ball or dead-ball), location relative to the , and league rules, often using principles like the "basic spot" for running plays or the "postscrimmage kick spot" for kicking plays. The offended team may accept or decline the penalty, and offsetting fouls from both sides cancel each other out, replaying the down without yardage change; in and collegiate levels, replay can overturn certain penalty calls if clear evidence exists. While rules vary slightly between leagues like the and NCAA—such as defensive resulting in a spot foul in the but 15 yards in college—common penalties emphasize discipline in blocking, alignment, and contact, with yardage typically assessed at 5, 10, or 15 yards, and the half-the-distance-to-the-goal rule limiting excessive penalties near the end zone.

Common Types of Penalties

The following table summarizes frequent penalties across major gridiron football leagues, including typical yardage and consequences:
Penalty TypeTypical YardageKey Description and EnforcementExample Rule Reference
False Start5 yardsOffensive lineman moves before the snap, enforced from the succeeding spot; dead-ball foul.NFL Rule 7-1-2; NCAA Rule 7-1-2-b-3
Offsides/Encroachment5 yardsDefensive player crosses the before the snap, from the succeeding spot.NFL Rule 7-1-5; NCAA Rule 7-1-5-a
Delay of Game5 yardsOffense fails to snap the ball timely, from the succeeding spot.NFL Rule 4-5-1; NCAA Rule 3-4-2
Holding10 yardsIllegal use of hands/arms to impede an opponent, often spot foul; defensive holding yields automatic first down.NFL Rule 5-2-6; NCAA Rule 9-3-3
Illegal Block in the Back10 yardsBlocking a player from behind, enforced from spot of foul.NFL Rule 12; NCAA Rule 9-3-5
Roughing the Passer15 yardsUnnecessary contact on the after the pass, automatic first down; personal foul.NFL Rule 9-1; NCAA Rule 9-1
Defensive Pass Interference15 yards or spot foulIllegal contact preventing a receiver's catch, automatic first down; spot foul in NFL.NFL Rule 8-5-1; NCAA Rule 7-3-8
Personal Foul (e.g., Targeting)15 yardsDangerous contact endangering safety, such as helmet-to-helmet; may result in ejection.NFL Rule 12; NCAA Rule 9-1-3
Unsportsmanlike Conduct15 yardsNon-physical actions like , enforced from succeeding spot; half-distance in final two minutes.NFL Rule 12; NCAA Rule 9-2-1
These infractions account for the majority of flags thrown, with personal fouls prioritized for player protection under evolving safety rules.

Purpose and Rationale

Objectives of Penalties

Penalties in are defined as sanctions imposed on a for violating , serving primarily to deter , safeguard player welfare, and preserve competitive equity across plays and games. These infractions encompass a wide range of actions, from physical excesses to procedural errors, with aimed at maintaining the sport's structured nature while minimizing harm. By applying yardage losses, loss of down, or other repercussions, penalties ensure that no gains an undue advantage, thereby upholding the foundational principles of fair competition. The core objectives of penalties revolve around three interconnected goals: enhancing player safety, enforcing procedural fairness, and curbing intentional disruptions. To promote safety, penalties target dangerous plays, such as spearing or helmet-to-helmet tackles, which could lead to severe injuries; for instance, roughing the passer rules penalize hits that endanger the beyond necessary contact. Upholding fairness involves penalizing illegal formations or offsides, which prevent teams from manipulating alignments to gain illegitimate edges, ensuring each down begins under equitable conditions. Additionally, penalties discourage tactics like excessive time-wasting or , fostering and preventing deliberate delays that could undermine the game's flow and integrity. These objectives trace their roots to the early 20th-century codification of rules by , often called the father of , who in 1885 introduced the first penalty—a five-yard loss for crossing the prematurely—to reduce the brutality of mass plays and mitigate injury risks in the evolving sport. This emphasis on safety intensified with broader reforms, including the 1906 legalization of the forward pass, which aimed to open up the game and decrease the clustered, high-impact formations that had caused numerous fatalities and prompted public outcry. The formation of the in 1920 further institutionalized these goals, standardizing penalties to balance amateur ideals of clean play with the professionalism demanded by paid leagues, including later rules like the 15-yard penalty for roughing the passer, introduced in 1938, to protect key players and promote consistent officiating. Through such measures, penalties have consistently aligned with the sport's overarching aim to evolve as a safer, more equitable contest.

Impact on Gameplay

Penalties profoundly shape strategic in by compelling teams to balance aggression with caution to avoid disruptions in field position and drive sustainability. Offensive coordinators often design plays that minimize risks of common infractions, such as opting for quicker passes to reduce the likelihood of holding calls during pass protection, thereby preserving momentum and scoring opportunities. Defensive schemes similarly adjust, with coaches instructing linemen to employ legal techniques to avoid roughing penalties, which could extend opponent drives and convert potential stops into first downs. These adaptations can lead to more conservative play-calling, particularly in critical situations like red-zone possessions, where a single penalty might transform a likely into a attempt or stalled drive. Statistically, penalties exert a measurable influence on game pacing and outcomes, with the averaging approximately 13 accepted penalties per game during the 2024 season, equating to about 6.5 per team and roughly 90-100 penalty yards total. High-impact fouls, such as defensive , can add an average of 1.47 expected points to the offense, often swinging drive success rates by 10-20% and altering win probabilities in close contests. For instance, a 15-yard penalty on a third-down conversion can force a punt instead of a , reducing scoring efficiency and extending game time through repeated downs. Overall, teams committing fewer penalties correlate with higher win rates, as evidenced by analyses showing penalty differentials impacting victory probabilities by up to 5-7% per game. Psychologically, penalties can demoralize players and shift , fostering that leads to secondary errors or overly cautious execution in subsequent plays. A flagged infraction often disrupts team rhythm, causing visible tension among athletes and prompting conservative strategies to regain composure, which may stifle offensive . In high-stakes moments, such as late-game drives, these effects amplify, with penalized teams experiencing reduced focus and increased error rates, ultimately contributing to broader swings that favor the opposing side. A notable is the 2002 AFC Divisional playoff game between the and , dubbed the , where a controversial ruling—instead of a —allowed the Patriots to retain possession on a fourth-quarter drive, leading to a game-tying and eventual 16-13 victory. This penalty interpretation not only propelled to the AFC Championship but also ignited their dynasty, winning three Super Bowls in four years, while leaving the Raiders with lasting resentment over the officiating decision that altered playoff outcomes.

Historical Development

Early Origins

The origins of penalty rules in American football trace back to the sport's evolution from rugby in the late 19th century, when intercollegiate games were often chaotic and violent due to minimal structure. Walter Camp, a Yale athlete and coach instrumental in shaping the game, began advocating for standardized rules in the 1870s and 1880s to differentiate from rugby and curb excessive roughness. At the 1876 Massasoit House convention, the first intercollegiate rules were drafted, drawing from rugby but introducing elements like downs and a ; however, initial fouls such as tripping or holding typically resulted only in loss of possession rather than yardage penalties. By 1885, Camp successfully pushed for the first explicit yardage penalty—a five-yard loss for defenders crossing the prematurely, akin to an offsides infraction—to prevent mass rushes and promote fair play. As the game grew, penalties for rough play emerged to address brutality, with rules committees standardizing responses to infractions like unnecessary roughness or obstruction. In the and early 1890s, fouls often carried five- to ten-yard penalties or forfeiture of the ball, reflecting rugby's influence but shifting toward quantifiable yardage losses instead of temporary player ejections (sin-bins). A pivotal milestone came in 1894, when the Intercollegiate Football Rules Committee, influenced by Camp, formalized harsher measures against excessive violence, including 15-yard penalties for unnecessary roughness to deter dangerous tactics like gang tackling. These changes aimed to maintain the sport's physicality while reducing injuries, though enforcement remained inconsistent across amateur games. Unlike rugby, where penalties often involved set kicks or scrums without direct yardage setbacks, emphasized territorial disadvantages to control chaos in open-field play. The most transformative reforms occurred in , following the 1905 season's 19 fatalities and over 150 serious injuries, which sparked national outrage and calls for abolition. President pressured college leaders to act, leading to the formation of the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the (precursor to the NCAA) and sweeping rule changes. Penalties were overhauled to include 15- to 20-yard losses for mass formations like the , alongside the introduction of a neutral zone to prevent pre-snap piling and stricter enforcement against rough play. These measures reduced annual deaths to 11 in both 1906 and 1907, establishing yardage-based penalties as a core mechanism for safety and flow. Early enforcement relied on referees' verbal announcements and whistles to halt play, without visual aids like flags. Amateur college rules heavily influenced professional play from the outset, with the American Professional Football Association (APFA, founded 1920 and later the ) adopting collegiate standards, including penalty structures for offsides and roughness, to legitimize the pro game. This alignment ensured consistency, as pro teams lacked independent rule-making until later divergences, allowing college innovations like 15-yard penalties to permeate early professional leagues.

Evolution in Professional and Amateur Leagues

In the mid-20th century, professional football leagues began introducing penalties to protect and enhance player safety amid the growing emphasis on passing plays. The formalized the roughing the passer rule in 1940, imposing a 15-yard penalty for unnecessary contact on a quarterback after releasing the ball, reflecting the league's shift toward more aerial offenses. By the , further refinements addressed emerging risks, such as the 1962 prohibition on grasping an opponent's face mask, which carried a 15-yard penalty to prevent severe injuries. In amateur leagues like the NCAA, rules gained prominence during the 1970s as televised games increased public scrutiny of player behavior; specific penalties were introduced in the early , carrying 15-yard penalties for actions deemed disrespectful or excessive. The late 20th and early 21st centuries saw significant advancements in penalty administration through technology and safety protocols. The introduced limited instant replay in 1986 for specific plays such as scoring, possession, and boundary calls, which was expanded in 1999 to a broader range; became reviewable in 2014. In , the NCAA established targeting as a distinct personal foul in 2008, penalizing helmet-to-helmet contact with the crown of the helmet at 15 yards, and refined it in 2013 to include automatic ejections for confirmed violations, aiming to reduce concussions. These changes marked a divergence in enforcement philosophies, with professional leagues prioritizing replay for precision and amateur levels focusing on ejecting players to deter dangerous play. As of November 2025, recent updates continue to emphasize safety and consistency across levels. The NFL banned the hip-drop tackle in 2024, classifying it as a 15-yard personal foul with an automatic first down when a defender rotates their hips and drives into an offensive player's lower leg or ankle, addressing injury data from prior seasons; no major penalty changes have been implemented in 2025. In the NCAA, pass interference calls became more reviewable under expanded instant replay guidelines in the 2023 rulebook, allowing officials to assess whether contact impeded a receiver without tipping the ball, though enforcement remains a spot foul capped at 15 yards. High school football, governed by the NFHS, introduced a sideline warning system in 2022 for coaches encroaching on the field area, escalating to a 5-yard unsportsmanlike conduct penalty on the second offense to maintain order without disrupting play. League divergences persist in personal foul severity and clock management impacts. The NFL enforces stricter interpretations of personal fouls, such as roughing the passer with detailed criteria for contact, often resulting in automatic first downs, while the NCAA's targeting rule uniquely mandates ejections to prioritize player welfare. Regarding clock rules, the NFL's 10-second runoff, in place since , applies to certain delay penalties under two minutes to prevent stalling, whereas NCAA rules, updated in , extend runoffs to all offensive dead-ball fouls in the final two minutes but stop the clock more frequently on incomplete passes and out-of-bounds plays, altering strategic penalty acceptance.

Administration and Communication

Signaling Penalties

In , officials use a set of standardized to visually communicate penalties to players, coaches, and spectators, ensuring clarity and consistency across games. These signals, numbering over 35 in professional and high school play, were first formalized in a college game between Syracuse and Cornell, where referee Ellwood Geiges introduced four basic gestures for common infractions like offside and holding; the adopted similar conventions as its fanbase expanded in the 1930s and 1940s. For example, holding is indicated by wrapping one hand around the wrist of the other below a clenched fist, mimicking the act of restraint, while grasping the face mask or helmet opening—a personal foul since the rule's inception in 1956—involves raising a fist to the face level and performing a pulling motion downward. The National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS) and maintain nearly identical signal sets to promote uniformity, with minor variations for emphasis, such as the NFHS's numbered system (e.g., signal 45 for face mask). To alert the field to a foul, the nearest official throws a penalty flag, a practice originating in on October 17, 1941, when Youngstown State coach Dwight "Dike" Beede provided flags to officials during a game against to replace horns and whistles, which were less visible; the NFL adopted yellow flags shortly thereafter for better , while colleges used red until the 1970s. In amateur and high school leagues governed by NFHS rules, officials may use bean bags instead of or alongside flags to mark non-foul spots like fumbles or the end of a run, aiding in accurate enforcement without disrupting play, though flags remain primary for penalties. A of seven s in the —, , down judge, line judge, field judge, side judge, and back judge—coordinates signaling to cover all aspects of the field, with each responsible for specific zones and foul types; for instance, the focuses on line play infractions like holding and signals them while the nearest throws the , then all report details to the , who confirms and announces the call. This teamwork ensures comprehensive coverage, as seen in coordinated gestures during multi-foul situations. Technological aids enhance signal clarity without altering core visual methods; since 1975, NFL referees have worn wireless microphones to explain penalties audibly for broadcast and stadium audiences, a innovation by officiating director to build trust in calls. As of the 2025 season, officials continue using these systems alongside intra-crew communication for real-time coordination, but signals themselves are not subject to full video review, as replay focuses on play outcomes rather than gesture accuracy.

Announcing and Reporting Penalties

In , penalties are announced on the field by the immediately following the official's to halt play, providing a clear verbal declaration of the infraction, the offending team, and the penalty yardage. For example, the referee might state, "Penalty on the offense for illegal motion, five yards," ensuring all players, coaches, and officials understand the call. This announcement typically occurs after the covering official signals the foul visually and reports it to the referee, who then uses a to broadcast the details stadium-wide. Once announced, the chain crew assists in measuring the yardage if necessary, particularly for spot fouls or longer penalties, by advancing or resetting the chains to the enforcement spot. In the NFL, certain penalties are subject to instant replay review, including pass interference calls and non-calls initiated by the replay booth in the final two minutes of each half; a 2019 one-year trial allowed coaches to challenge pass interference, but this was not extended beyond that season, with coaches permitted up to two challenges per game for other reviewable plays. In NCAA football, penalties such as targeting fouls are subject to mandatory instant replay review, with coaches allowed up to three challenges per game for reviewable plays, including those involving potential disqualifications, though not all penalties qualify for challenge. For broadcast and public reporting, the referee's announcement is relayed through the stadium's public address (PA) system, allowing spectators to hear the details in real time, while scoreboards display the penalty type, yardage, and affected team via graphics for visual clarity. Television broadcasts amplify this by overlaying penalty information, including replay footage, to inform viewers, though NFL Next Gen Stats primarily focuses on player tracking rather than direct penalty analytics integration as of 2023. Penalties are reported to leagues post-game for , with the reviewing footage to impose fines on repeat offenders; for instance, fines start at $14,491 for a first offense and increase to $20,288 for subsequent violations in 2024. These fines, detailed in official letters to players with video evidence, aim to deter recurring infractions and maintain game integrity.

Enforcement Procedures

Spot of the Foul

In , the spot of the foul refers to the location on the field where an infraction occurs or is deemed to have occurred by rule. This contrasts with the previous spot, defined as the position where the ball was last put in play, such as the for a scrimmage down. According to NFL Rule 14, Section 1, the spot of enforcement for a penalty is determined by these locations, along with others like the succeeding spot (where the ball would next be put in play absent the foul) or the dead-ball spot (where the ball became dead). The basic spot serves as a reference for and is determined by the play type—for running plays, it is typically the end of the run; for passing plays, it may be the previous spot or spot of the foul. The choice depends on whether the foul is live-ball (occurring while the ball is live) or dead-ball (occurring while the ball is dead), ensuring fair application that affects down, distance, and field position. For dead-ball fouls, such as after a play ends, enforcement occurs from the succeeding spot to maintain the run of the down without altering the outcome of the just-completed play. Live-ball fouls are enforced from the basic spot (a reference point that varies by play type, such as the previous spot for fouls before advancement or the end of the run for running plays) unless the rule specifies the spot of the foul, allowing the penalty to reflect the infraction's location while preserving gameplay integrity. This principle, outlined in Rule 14, Section 3, prevents teams from gaining undue advantage and ties enforcement directly to resets in down and distance. A common example is an illegal shift, where the offense fails to come to a complete stop after movement before the snap; this live-ball foul is enforced from the previous spot, typically resulting in a five-yard penalty from the . In contrast, defensive , which involves illegal contact preventing a receiver from catching a pass, is enforced strictly from the spot of the foul, awarding the offense a first down at that location to compensate for the disrupted play. These spot determinations ensure penalties are applied precisely, with yardage adjustments handled separately to adjust the ball's position accordingly. Exceptions apply to multiple fouls, where no double enforcement occurs; if the same team commits more than one live-ball foul during a down, only the most advantageous to the offended team is enforced, avoiding compounded penalties from a single spot. Similarly, a combination of live-ball and dead-ball fouls by opposing teams may cancel out, with enforcement reverting to the previous spot to replay the down. Overall, these rules link the spot directly to down progression and distance recalculations, promoting consistent officiating across professional leagues like the .

Measurement and Yardage Application

In , penalties are assessed in fixed yardage increments that reflect the severity of the infraction, with procedural fouls such as false starts or illegal shifts typically resulting in a 5-yard loss from the enforcement spot. Personal fouls, including roughing the or unnecessary roughness, generally carry a 10- to 15-yard penalty, often enforced from the spot of the foul to disadvantage the offending team. Certain defensive infractions, like or defensive holding, not only impose yardage (5 to 15 yards or to the spot of the foul) but also award an automatic first down to the offense, advancing the chains without requiring the yardage to reach the line to gain. Enforcement of yardage varies by the type of play and foul, typically applying the penalty forward from the line to gain for defensive fouls or backward from the basic spot for offensive ones, with options including loss of down for repeatable infractions like . Inside an opponent's territory, particularly within the 20-yard line, no penalty exceeds half the distance to the goal line to prevent over-advancement; for instance, a 15-yard penalty from the 10-yard line would move the ball only to the 5-yard line. Basic measurement involves simple addition or subtraction from the enforcement spot—for example, a 10-yard defensive holding penalty from the offense's 30-yard line shifts the to the 40-yard line, recalculating the line to gain accordingly. When multiple fouls occur, treatment depends on whether they are successive or simultaneous and by which team. Successive fouls by the same team allow the offended team to select the most advantageous single penalty for , effectively declining the others under the "all-but-one" principle. Simultaneous fouls by opposing teams offset if they carry equivalent yardage, nullifying both and replaying the down from the previous spot; dissimilar yardage results in the offended team choosing of one. In cases of multiple fouls by one team during a change of possession, the team with "" retains the ball after yardage application, ensuring fairness in .

Special Rules and Exceptions

Intentional Fouls

Intentional fouls in refer to deliberate violations committed by players to gain a , distinguished from accidental infractions by the clear intent to break the rules. A prominent example is , where a , facing defensive pressure and imminent loss of yardage, throws a with no realistic chance of completion to an or into the end zone. This act is penalized as a loss of down plus 10 yards from the previous spot, or from the spot of the foul if it occurs outside the tackle box, and results in a if the ball is thrown from the end zone. Another common intentional foul is tripping, defined as the purposeful use of the leg or foot to obstruct an opponent below the , which is treated as a personal foul carrying a 10-yard penalty from of the foul. Enforcement of intentional fouls typically involves a spot foul, with penalties ranging from 10 to 15 yards depending on the severity and type, often accompanied by loss of down for offensive infractions. Flagrant intentional acts, such as excessive late hits or , can lead to immediate ejection from the game, in addition to monetary fines; for instance, in the , players faced fines up to $14,491 for a first offense of like verbal abuse of officials or violent gestures. Officials determine based on the player's actions, , and whether the foul provides a clear strategic benefit, such as preventing a score or extending a drive. Intent determination relies on officials' judgment of actions and , aligned with ongoing player safety emphases. Notable examples include late hits, such as the unnecessary roughness penalty in the 2023 on Bengals DE , which aided the Chiefs' drive. Controversial calls like the offensive holding in also sparked debates on officiating, though not classified as intentional fouls. Such fouls tie directly to codes enforced by leagues, emphasizing that deliberate acts not only incur on-field penalties but also contribute to broader disciplinary measures like repeat-offender suspensions. In amateur leagues, consequences for intentional fouls are often more severe, with automatic disqualifications for flagrant personal fouls to uphold player safety and game integrity. Under rules from organizations like the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS) and the (IFAF), a single intentional act such as tripping or grounding can result in ejection, and repeat violations lead to multi-game bans or team penalties. In NFHS rules, intentional tripping incurs a 15-yard penalty and potential disqualification; IFAF aligns with similar personal foul treatments, emphasizing ejections for flagrant acts (as of 2025 rules). These measures align with overarching guidelines that prioritize ethical conduct, ensuring that intentional fouls deter unsportsmanlike behavior across all levels of play.

Ten-Second Runoff Rule

The Ten-Second Runoff Rule is a penalty mechanism in used by leagues including the and NCAA to discourage intentional delays by subtracting 10 seconds from the game clock following certain fouls, in addition to any yardage or down penalties. This rule primarily targets offensive actions that artificially stop the clock without consuming a timeout, ensuring fair in critical situations. It applies specifically after the in each half, where clock rules become stricter to prevent manipulation. The rule was enacted in 2006 by both the and NCAA as a response to delay tactics prevalent in 2005 college games, such as excessive huddling and intentional acts to halt the clock without consequence. Prior to this, general runoff provisions existed in the since 1955 to adjust clock time for penalties, but the 10-second subtraction for specific delays like intentional incompletions was formalized to address growing concerns over game length and pacing. In the , triggers include offensive fouls such as , illegal shift, delay of game, , illegal , or spiking the ball without intent to stop the clock after a potential score. Replay reviews also activate the rule if a reversal changes a play's outcome in a way that would have allowed the clock to run, such as overturning a first down. For excess team timeouts due to , the defense may elect the runoff instead of yardage. Enforcement involves officials subtracting 10 seconds from the game clock immediately, resetting the play clock to 30 seconds (or 25 seconds in some NCAA scenarios), and starting the game clock on the referee's ready-for-play signal rather than the snap. No additional yardage is assessed solely for the runoff, but the underlying foul's penalty (e.g., loss of down for ) remains, and the defense may decline the runoff if it prefers the yardage enforcement. If fewer than 10 seconds remain, the half or game ends. The offense can avoid the runoff by using a charged timeout, in which case the clock resets to the time at the play's conclusion and starts on the snap. In NCAA rules, the provision extends to both teams and applies in the final minute of halves for fouls stopping the clock, with the non-fouling team choosing between the runoff, yardage, or both; it does not apply if the clock was already stopped or for certain change-of-possession plays. Exceptions include situations where the foul does not cause a clock stoppage, such as during a running clock or after a score, and the rule cannot be enforced against the defense—only the offense faces the time penalty for delay-related acts. Injuries or hurried may waive the runoff if deemed unintentional, and in under NFHS rules, adoption is optional by state associations, often limited to the final two minutes. Recent clarifications, such as the NFL's 2024 expansion to include between-downs fouls like that stop the clock, further refine enforcement to maintain game flow. This rule overlaps briefly with intentional fouls by addressing time-specific manipulations but focuses exclusively on clock subtraction without emphasizing field position penalties.

Categories of Penalties

Procedural and Technical Fouls

Procedural and technical fouls in encompass violations related to pre-snap alignment, motion, and timing that do not involve player contact, primarily enforced to maintain fair play and game flow. These infractions are typically dead-ball fouls, occurring before the snap or during , and result in a five-yard penalty assessed from the previous spot, with the down repeated rather than lost. Unlike personal fouls, they do not lead to ejections or automatic first downs, emphasizing procedural compliance over player safety. A occurs when an offensive player, after assuming a set position, moves in a manner that simulates the start of a play before the ball is snapped, such as charging or sudden shifting. This foul disrupts the defensive preparation and is penalized with a loss of five yards from the , enforced prior to the snap, stopping play immediately. Illegal formation involves improper offensive alignment, such as having fewer than seven players on the or failing to position eligible receivers correctly relative to ineligible ones. It carries a five-yard penalty from the previous spot, also a dead-ball foul that halts the play before it begins. Offsides, often termed encroachment or neutral zone infraction on defense, happens when a defensive player enters the neutral zone and contacts an offensive player or influences the snap before the ball is legally snapped. This results in a five-yard penalty from the previous spot, with play stopped to prevent unfair advantage. Delay of game is called when the offensive team fails to snap the ball within 40 seconds after the play clock starts or does not put the ball in play promptly after it is ready. The penalty is five yards, enforced from the succeeding spot if between downs, and the ball remains dead, with potential warnings for repeated offenses. These fouls are among the most frequently called in the , with procedural and technical violations accounting for approximately 30% of all accepted penalties during the 2024 season, driven largely by false starts (707 instances) and illegal formations (around 130). False starts, in particular, spiked in noisy stadium environments, as seen in the September 2024 matchup between the and Houston Texans, where the Texans committed three consecutive false starts amid intense crowd noise at , contributing to seven such penalties in that game alone. Enforcement of these penalties follows standard yardage application from the previous spot, ensuring consistent game progression without altering the down count in most cases.

Personal and Safety Fouls

Personal and safety fouls in encompass violations that involve excessive physical contact or actions posing risks to player welfare, typically resulting in 15-yard penalties enforced from the spot of the foul and often accompanied by an automatic first down for the offended team. These fouls prioritize protecting participants from unnecessary harm, distinguishing them from procedural infractions by focusing on bodily contact rather than mechanics. Among the key personal fouls is roughing the kicker, which occurs when a defender makes unnecessary contact with the kicker during or immediately after a punt or attempt, warranting a 15-yard penalty, an automatic first down, and potential disqualification if the action is deemed flagrant. Unnecessary roughness involves excessive or avoidable force beyond what is required to make a legal tackle, such as striking a player after the ball is dead or using undue violence, penalized at 15 yards with possible fines or ejection for severe cases. Helmet-to- contact, a of unnecessary roughness, is called when a player lowers their head to initiate forcible helmet contact against an opponent, resulting in a 15-yard penalty and potential fines to deter head trauma. In NCAA football, targeting—a rule introduced in 2008 and strengthened in 2013—prohibits launching at a opponent with forcible contact to the head or neck area, carrying a 15-yard penalty and automatic ejection, with the player sitting out the remainder of the half or game depending on timing. These fouls are generally spot fouls, meaning the penalty yardage is marked from the infraction's location rather than the , and they frequently grant an automatic first down to the non-offending team to maintain offensive momentum disrupted by the violation. Repeat offenses can lead to disqualifications, as seen in the 's 2025 expansions of replay review authority to certain personal fouls like unnecessary roughness on defenseless players, informed by a 17% drop in concussions during the 2024 season compared to 2023. NCAA rules enforce ejections more stringently than the , where targeting equivalents rely on on-field judgment and post-game fines rather than immediate removal. High-profile examples illustrate enforcement rigor; in the , players faced over $5 million in total fines for on-field infractions including late hits and personal fouls, a 161% increase from the prior year, highlighting league efforts to curb dangerous plays. Such cases, like fines for blindside blocks or hits on receivers, underscore differences in application, with NCAA targeting leading to more ejections—over 100 annually in recent seasons—compared to the NFL's fine-heavy approach. These penalties, standardized at 15 yards, directly address safety concerns linked to (CTE), a degenerative associated with repeated head impacts in football, as evidenced by studies showing doubled CTE risk per 2.6 years of play. The NFL and NCAA have tied rule enforcement to data, with personal fouls serving as primary deterrents to reduce long-term neurological risks.

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