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Omotic languages
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|
| Omotic | |
|---|---|
| Geographic distribution | Ethiopia, Sudan |
Native speakers | 7.9 million[1] |
| Linguistic classification | Afro-Asiatic
|
| Proto-language | Proto-Omotic |
| Subdivisions |
|
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-5 | omv |
| Glottolog | None |
 | |
The Omotic languages are a traditionally recognized but disputed grouping of languages spoken mainly in southwestern Ethiopia, around the Omo River region, and in parts of southeastern Sudan (Blue Nile State). This classification conventionally includes the Damotic (North Omotic), Mao, Dizoid, and Aroid (South Omotic) languages.
Some of these languages are written in the Geʽez script, while others use the Latin alphabet. They are generally agglutinative and exhibit complex tonal systems, as in the Bench language. The group comprises about 7.9 million speakers.[1]
They are generally classified within the Afroasiatic family, though their inclusion in it, as well as the validity of Omotic as a coherent language group, are questioned by some linguists.
Languages
[edit]
The North and South Omotic branches ("Nomotic" and "Somotic") are universally recognized, with some dispute as to the composition of North Omotic. The primary debate is over the placement of the Mao languages. Bender (2000) classifies Omotic languages as follows:
- Omotic
- South Omotic / Aroid (Hamer-Banna, Aari, Dime, Karo)
- North Omotic / Non-Aroid
Apart from terminology, this differs from Fleming (1976) in including the Mao languages, whose affiliation had originally been controversial, and in abolishing the "Gimojan" group.[clarification needed] There are also differences in the subclassification of Ometo, which is not covered here.
Hayward (2003)
[edit]Hayward (2003) separates out the Mao languages as a third branch of Omotic and breaks up Ometo–Gimira:
Blench (2006)
[edit]Blench (2006) gives a more agnostic classification:[2]
- Omotic
Bosha† is unclassified; Ethnologue lists it as a dialect of Kafa but notes it may be a distinct language.
Classification
[edit]Omotic is generally considered the most divergent branch of the Afroasiatic languages. In early work up to Greenberg (1963), the languages had been classified in a subgroup of Cushitic, called most often "West Cushitic". Fleming (1969) argued that it should instead be classified as an independent branch of Afroasiatic, a view which Bender (1971) established to most linguists' satisfaction,[3] though a few linguists maintain the West Cushitic position[4][5] or that only South Omotic forms a separate branch, with North Omotic remaining part of Cushitic.[citation needed] Blench notes that Omotic shares honey-related vocabulary with Cushitic but not cattle-related vocabulary, suggesting that the split occurred before the advent of pastoralism.[6] A few scholars have raised doubts that the Omotic languages are part of the Afroasiatic language family at all,[7][8] and Theil (2006) proposes that Omotic be treated as an independent family.[9] However, the general consensus, based primarily on morphological evidence, such as pronominal prefixes, grammatical number and plural form, as well as prefix conjugation is that membership in Afroasiatic is well established.[10][11][12]
The Aroid (South Omotic) languages were first included in "West Cushitic" by Greenberg; they were excluded from earlier classifications by Italian Cushiticists such as Enrico Cerulli and Mario Martino Moreno,[4] and their inclusion in Omotic remains contested.
Glottolog
[edit]Hammarström, et al. in Glottolog does not consider Omotic to be a unified group, and also does not consider any of the "Omotic" groups to be part of the Afroasiatic phylum. Glottolog accepts the following as independent language families.
- Ta-Ne-Omotic
- Dizoid (Maji)
- Mao
- Aroid (Ari-Banna; "South Omotic")
These four families are also accepted by Güldemann (2018), who similarly doubts the validity of Omotic as a unified group.[13]
Characteristics
[edit]General
[edit]The Omotic languages have a morphology that is partly agglutinative and partly fusional:
- Agglutinating: Yem am-se-f-∅-à go+plural+present+3. Person+Femininum “they go”[14]
- Fusional: Aari ʔíts-eka eat+3. Person Pl. Converb “by eating”[15]
Inflection through suprasegmental morphemes is found in individual languages such as Dizi and Bench; Historically, these are partly reflexes of affixes:
- Bench sum˩ "name", sum-s˦ "to name"
The nominal morphology is based on a nominative-accusative-absolutive system; for verbal morphology, a complex inflection according to categories such as tense/aspect, interrogative/declarative, and affirmative/negative, as well as agreement, is more predicative, characterizing forms with the subject. In syntax, the word order subject-object-verb (SOV) is generally valid; postpositions are used, which can be considered typical for both SOV languages in general and for the Ethiopian region.
Phonology
[edit]The Omotic languages have on average slightly less than thirty consonant phonemes, which is a comparatively high number, but is also found in other primary branches of Afro-Asiatic. Commonly used are bilabial, alveolar, velar and glottal plosive, various fricative, alveolar affricates and /w/, /j/, /l/, /r/, /m/, /n/. What is typical for the non-glottal plosives is that they are each represented by a voiced, a voiceless, and an ejective phoneme; All three types can also be found in fricatives and affricates. Most Omotic languages have additional consonants. Examples of this are the Implosive in South Omotic (/ɓ/, /ɗ/, /ɠ/) and the Retroflex of the Bench. In some cases, consonants can also occur geminated. Representatives of the Nordomotic and Mao have five to six vowel phonemes, the quantity is partly a difference in meaning; In contrast, much more extensive vowel systems are typical for South Omotic.
All Omotic languages for which sufficient data is available are tonal languages, which usually only distinguish two tones (high and low), some languages have more tones: Dizi distinguishes three, Bench six. Certain Omotic languages such as Aari and Ganza (Mao) have tonal accent systems in which each independent word has exactly one high tone, whereas in most languages the tones are freely distributed.
Morphology
[edit]Nouns
[edit]The Omotic languages distinguish between the nominal categories number, case,[16] and definiteness. These categories are marked by different suffixes, which can be fusional or analytic depending on the language. The two genders in all omotic languages for which sufficient data are available are masculine and feminine; they essentially correspond to natural gender. The case system distinguishes the omotic languages as accusative languages; other cases form various adverbial determinations. A number of omotic languages have an absolutive case, which marks the citation form and the direct object (examples from Wolaita):[17]
- Absolute keett-a "the house"
- Nominative keett-i "the house"
Some common case suffixes are:
- Nominative *-i (Gonga-Gimojan, Dizi-Sheko)
- Accusative *-m (South Domotic)
- Genitive *-kV (Gonga-Gimojan, Dizi-Sheko, Mao, Dime)
- Dative *-s (Gonga-Gimojan, Dizi-Sheko, Mao?[18])
A typological peculiarity, which is also isolated within Omotic, is the person and gender dependency of the nominative in Bench (either -i˧ or -a˧, depending on the person):
- a˦tsin˦-a˧ “a woman” (3rd person sg. femininum)[19]
- nun˧-a˧ "we" (1st person plural exclusive)[20]
- nas˦i˧ “a man” (3rd person sg. masculine)[20]
In most languages, the singular is unmarked, while the plural has its own suffix. It is possible that plural suffixes in some languages arose from a partitive construction. This is supported by the length of certain plural suffixes, formal relationships to the genitive singular and the fact that the determining suffix sometimes comes before the plural suffix, which is typologically unusual:[21][22]
Pronouns
[edit]The personal pronouns distinguish similar categories to the nouns in most omotic languages; However, the genera are usually only marked in the 3rd person singular. The personal pronouns usually have their own stem for each number-person-gender combination, to which case suffixes are then added, which are the same for all persons. Some of the pronouns show similarities with other Afro-Asian language families and can therefore be traced back to Proto-Afro-Asiatic; Certain South Omotic personal pronouns can be explained as borrowings from the neighboring Nilo-Saharan:[25]
| 1st person | 2nd person | 3rd person | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| sg. | pl. | sg. | pl. | sg. | pl. | |||
| m. | f. | |||||||
| Omotic | Nordomotic | |||||||
| Proto-Gonga-Gimojan | *ta | *nu~*no | *no | *int- | *isi | ? | *is- | |
| Proto-Dizi-Sheko | *ǹ | *ń | *yeta | *iti | *iz- | *iži | *iš- | |
| Proto-Mao | *ti- | ? | *hiya | *nam | ? | ? | ? | |
| Proto-Southomotic | *inta | *wo-ta | *yaa/*in | *ye-ta | *nuo | *naaa | *ke-ta | |
| Other | Afroasiatic: Akkadian | ī | nī | k-a/k-ī | k-unu/k-ina | š-u | š-a | š-unu/š-ina |
| Nilotic: Teso[26] | ɛɔŋɔ | ɔnɪ/ɪs(y)ɔ | ɪjɔ | yɛsɪ | ŋɛsɪ | kɛsɪ | ||
The case endings of the personal pronouns and the nouns are usually identical:
- Aari: Accusative -m: yé-m "you", fatir-in-ám "the corn"
Possessive pronouns in particular have their own forms:
- Aari: yé "yours," ʔéed-te "a man's"
Reconstruction
[edit]Bender (1987: 33–35)[27] reconstructs the following proto-forms for Proto-Omotic and Proto-North Omotic, the latter which is considered to have descended from Proto-Omotic.
| English gloss | Proto- Omotic |
Proto-North Omotic |
|---|---|---|
| ashes | *bend | |
| bird | *kaf | |
| bite | *sats’ | |
| breast | *t’iam | |
| claw | *ts’ugum | |
| die | *hayk’ | |
| dog | *kan | |
| egg | *ɓul | |
| fire | *tam | |
| grass | *maata | |
| hand | *kuc | |
| head | *to- | |
| hear | *si- | |
| mouth | *non- | |
| nose | *si(n)t’ | |
| root | *ts’ab- | |
| snake | *šooš | |
| stand (vb.) | *yek’ | |
| this | *kʰan- | |
| thou (2.SG) | *ne(n) | |
| water | *haats’ | |
| we (1.PL) | *nu(n) | |
| ye (2.PL) | *int- | |
| green | *c’il- | |
| house | *kyet | |
| left | *hadr- | |
| elephant | *daŋgVr | |
| sister, mother | *ind | |
| armpit | *šoɓ- | |
| boat | *gong- | |
| grave | *duuk | |
| vomit | *c’oš- |
Comparative vocabulary
[edit]Sample basic vocabulary of 40 Omotic languages from Blažek (2008):[28]
| Language | eye | ear | nose | tooth | tongue | mouth | blood | bone | tree | water | eat | name |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Basketo | af | waytsi | sints | ačči | B ɪnts'ɨrs | no·na | suuts | mεk'εts | B mɪts | B waːtse | A moy- | B sumsa |
| Dokka | af | waytsi | si·nts | ačči | ɨrs'ɪns | no·na | su·ts | mik'әts | mittse | wa·tsi | m- | suntsa |
| Male | ’aːpi | waizi | sied‘i | ’ači | ’ɪndɪrsi | daŋka | sugutsi | mεgεtsi | mitsi | waːtsi | mo- | sunsi |
| Wolaita | ayf-iya; A ayp'-iya | haytta | sir-iya | acca; A acc'a | int'arsa | doona | suutta; Ch maččamié | mek'etta | mitta | hatta | m- | sunta |
| Kullo | ayp'-iya | haytsa | siid'-iya | acc'a | ins'arsa | doona | sutsa | mek'etsa | barzap'-iya | hatsa | m- | sutta |
| Cancha | ayp'e | hayts | sire | acc‘a | ins‘arsa | doona | suts | mek'etsa | mits | haats | m- | sunts |
| Malo | ’áɸe | hʌ́je | síd'e | ’áčʰә | ’irɪ́nts | dɔ́nʌ | sútsʰ | mεk‘ɨ́ts‘ | mɪ́ts | ’átsә | m- | sʊns |
| Gofa | ayp'e | haytsa | siide | acc'a | intsarsa | doona | sutsa | mek'etta | mitsa | hatse | m- | suntsa |
| Zala | ayfe | (h)aytsa | sid'e | ačča | int'arsa | duna | tsutsa | mitsa | hatsa | maa- | ||
| Gamu | ayp'e | haytsa | siire | acc'a | ins'arsa | doona | suuts | mek'ets | mitsa | hatse | m- | sunts |
| Dache | ayfe | hayts'e | siyd'e | acé | ɪntsεrs | duna | suts | mek'ets | šara | hatse | m- | sunts |
| Dorze | ayp'e | waye | sire | acc'a | ins'arsa | duuna | suts | mek'etsa | mits | haats | m- | sunts |
| Oyda | ápe, ayfe | B haːye | sid'e | ’ač, pl. o·či | iláns | B doːna | suts | mεk'εts | mɪns'a | haytsi | mu’- | suntsu |
| Zayse | ’áaɸε | waayέ | kuŋké | ’acc' | ints'έrε | baadέ | súuts' | mεk'έεte | mits'a | wáats'i | m- | č'úuč'e |
| Zergulla | ’aːɸe | wai | kuŋki | ’ac'e | ’insәre | haː’e | suːts | nεkεtε | mintsa | waːtse | m- | suːns |
| Ganjule | ’áaɸε | waašέ | kuŋkε | gaggo | ints'úrε | baadέ | súuts' | mεk'έtε | mits'i | waats'i | m- | ts'únts'i |
| Gidicho | ’áaɸε | waašέ | kuŋké | gaggo | ints'úrε | baadέ | súuts'i | mεk'εte | míts'i | wáats'i | m- | ts'únts'i |
| Kachama | ’áaɸε | uwaašέ | kuŋkέ | gaggo | ints'úrε | baadέ | súuts'ε | mέk‘έtee | mits'i | wáats'i | m- | ts'únts'i |
| Koyra | ’áɸε | waayέ | siid'ε | gaggo | ’únts'úrε | ’áaša | súuts' | mεk‘έεte | míts'e; Ce akka | wáats'e | múuwa | súuntsi |
| Chara | áːpa | wóːya | sínt'u | áč'a | ’íns'ila | noːná | súːta | mertá | mítsa | áːs'a | ḿ-na | sumá |
| Bench | ap | (h)ay | sint' | gaš; san | eyts' | non | sut | mert | inč | so’ | m’ | sum |
| She | af | ai | sint' | gaš | ets' | non | sut | mεrt | enc | so’ | mma | sum |
| Yemsa | aafa; kema | odo | siya | a’ya | terma | noono | anna | mega | i’o | aka | me | suna |
| Bworo | aawa | waaza | šint'a | gaša | albeera | noona | ts'atts'a | mak'әttsa | mitta | aatsa | maa- | šuutsa |
| Anfillo | aːfo | waːjo | šiːnto | gaːššo | εrɪːtso | nɔːno | ts'antso | šaušo | mɪːtso | yuːro | m | šiːgo |
| Kafa | affo, aho | wammo; kendo | muddo | gašo | eč'iyo | nono; koko | dammo | šawušo | met'o | ač'o | mammo; č‘okko | šiggo |
| Mocha | á·p̱o | wa·mmo | šit'ó | gášo | häč'awo | no·no | damo | ša·wúšo | mit'ó | à·č'o | ma̱·(hä) | šəgo |
| Proto-Omotic[27] | *si(n)t’ | *non- | *haats’ | |||||||||
| Maji | ||||||||||||
| Proto-Maji[29] | *ʔaːb | *háːy | *aːç’u | *eːdu | *uːs | *inču | *haːy | *um | ||||
| Dizi | ab-u | aːi | sin-u | ažu | yabɪl | εd-u | yεrm-u | us | wɪč | aːi | m- | sɪm-u |
| Shako | áːb | aːy | B sɪnt' | áːč'u | érb | eːd | yärm | uːsu | íːnču | áːy | m̥̀- | suːm |
| Nayi | ’aːf | B haːy | si.n | B acu | B yalb | eːdu | yarbm | ’uːs | B incus | B hai | m- | suːm |
| Mao | ||||||||||||
| Mao | áːfέ | wáːlέ | šíːnt'έ | àːts'ὲ | ánts'ílὲ | pɔ́ːnsὲ | hándέ | máːlt‘έ | ’íːntsὲ | hàːtsὲ | hà míjà | jèːškέ |
| Seze | aːb, áːwi | wέὲ | šíːnté | háːts'έ, haːnsì | jántsílὲ/ t'agál | waːndè | hámbìlὲ | bàk‘ílí | ’innsì | háːns'ì | máːmɔ́ | nìːší |
| Hozo | abbi | wεεra | šini | ats'i | S wìntə́lә | waandi | hambilε | bak‘ilε | S ’íːnti | haani | maa | iiši |
| Aroid | ||||||||||||
| Dime | ’afe, ’aɸe | k'aːme | nʊkʊ | F baŋgɪl; ɪts; kәsɪl | ’ɨdәm | ’afe; B ’app- | maχse; F dzumt | k‘oss; F k‘ʊs | ’aχe; B haːɣo | naχe; B nәːɣ- | ’ɨčɨn | mɨze; F naːb |
| Hamer | api, afi | k'a(ː)m- | nuki | ’ats' | ’ad’ab | ap- | zum’i | leːfi | ak'- | noko | kʊm- | nam- |
| Banna | afi | k'ami | nuki | atsi | adʌb/adɪm | afa | zump'i | lεfi | ɑhaka/haːk'a | noko | its-; kum- | na(a)bi |
| Karo | afi | k'ami | nuki | asi | attәp' | M ’apo | mәk'әs | lefi | aka | nuk'o | isidi | |
| Ari | afi | k'ami | nuki | atsi; B kasel geegi | adim | afa | zom’i | lεfi | ahaka | noɣa; B nɔk'ɔ | its- | nami |
| Ubamer | a·fi | ɣ/k'a·mi | nuki | atsi | admi | afa | mək'əs ~ -ɣ- | lεfí | aɣa | luk'a, luɣa | ’its- | na·mi |
| Galila | a·fi | k'a·mi | nuki | ači | admi | afa | mәk'әs | lεfí | aɣa/aháɣa | lu·ɣa/lo·ɣa | ič- | la·mi |
See also
[edit]Notes
[edit]- ^ a b "Omotic languages". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 6 March 2024.
- ^ Blench, 2006. The Afro-Asiatic Languages: Classification and Reference List Archived 2013-10-07 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Hayward 2000, p. 85.
- ^ a b Lamberti 1991.
- ^ Zaborksi 1986.
- ^ Blench 2006, pp. 150–152.
- ^ I. M. Diakonoff (1998) Journal of Semitic Studies 43:209: "It is quite evident that cultural ties between Proto-Semitic and the African branches of the Afrasian macrofamily must have been severed at a very early date indeed. However, the grammatical structure of [Common Semitic] (especially in the verb) is obviously close to that of Common Berbero-Libyan (CBL), as well as to Bedauye. (Bedauye might, quite possibly, be classified as a family distinct from the rest of Kushitic.) The same grammatical isoglosses are somewhat more feebly felt between Semitic and (the other?) Kushitic languages. They practically disappear between the Semitic and the Omotic languages, which were formerly termed Western Kushitic, but which actually may not be Afro-Asiatic at all, like their neighbours the Nubian languages and Meroitic."
- ^ Newman 1980.
- ^ Rolf Theil (2006) Is Omotic Afro-Asiatic? Archived 2021-02-24 at the Wayback Machine pp 1–2: "I claim to show that no convincing arguments have been presented [for the inclusion of Omotic (OM) in Afro-Asiatic (AA)], and that OM should be regarded as an independent language family. No closer genetic relations have been demonstrated between OM and AA than between OM and any other language family."
- ^ Gerrit Dimmendaal (2008) "Language Ecology and Linguistic Diversity on the African Continent", in Language and Linguistics Compass 2/5:841: "Although its Afroasiatic affiliation has been disputed, the allocation of Omotic within this family is now well-established, based on the attestation of morphological properties that this family shares with other Afroasiatic branches."
- ^ Ehret, Christopher (2010-12-17). History and the Testimony of Language. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-94759-7. Archived from the original on 2024-05-26. Retrieved 2020-11-02.
- ^ Lecarme, Jacqueline (2003-01-01). Research in Afroasiatic Grammar Two. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 978-90-272-4753-7. Archived from the original on 2024-05-26. Retrieved 2020-11-02.
- ^ Güldemann, Tom (2018). "Historical linguistics and genealogical language classification in Africa". In Güldemann, Tom (ed.). The Languages and Linguistics of Africa. The World of Linguistics series. Vol. 11. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 58–444. doi:10.1515/9783110421668-002. ISBN 978-3-11-042606-9. S2CID 133888593.
- ^ Mammo Girma: Yemsa Verb Morphology. Some Inflections and Derivations. 1986, quoted from Bender 2000, p. 120; Clay marking according to the different forms in Lamberti 1993, p. 190
- ^ Hayward 1990 quoted in Bender 2000, p. 171
- ^ R. Hayward, Y. Tsuge: Concerning case in Omotic. In: Africa and Overseas. Volume 81, pp. 21-38. 1998.
- ^ Bender 2000, p. 21.
- ^ Bender 2000, p. 212.
- ^ Bender 2000, p. 127.
- ^ a b Mary J. Breeze: Personal Pronouns in Gimira (Benchnon). In: Ursula Wiesemann (Ed.): Pronominal Systems. Narr, Tübingen 1986, ISBN 3-87808-335-1, pp. 47–70, p. 53.
- ^ Hayward 2003, p. 246.
- ^ Lamberti 1993, p. 70 f.
- ^ Bender 2000.
- ^ Lamberti 1993, p. 71.
- ^ Reconstructions according to Bender 2000, p. 196
- ^ Bender 2000, p. 163.
- ^ a b Bender, Lionel M. 1987. "First Steps Toward proto-Omotic." Current Approaches to African Linguistics 3 (1987): 21–36.
- ^ Blažek, Václav. 2008. A lexicostatistical comparison of Omotic languages. In Bengtson (ed.), 57–148.
- ^ Aklilu, Yilma. 2003. Comparative phonology of the Maji languages. Journal of Ethiopian studies 36: 59–88.
Sources cited
[edit]- Bender, M. Lionel (2000). Comparative Morphology of the Omotic Languages. Munich: LINCOM.
- Blench, Roger (2006). Archaeology, Language, and the African Past. Oxford: AltaMira Press. ISBN 9780759104662.
- Fleming, Harold (1976). "Omotic overview". In Bender, M. Lionel (ed.). The Non-Semitic Languages of Ethiopia. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University. pp. 299–323.
- Hayward, Richard J., ed. (1990). Omotic Language Studies. London: School of Oriental and African Studies.
- Hayward, Richard J. (2003). "Omotic: the 'empty quarter' of Afroasiatic linguistics". In Jacqueline Lecarme (ed.). Research in Afroasiatic Grammar II: selected papers from the fifth conference on Afroasiatic languages, Paris 2000. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. pp. 241–261. doi:10.1075/cilt.241.13hay.
- Newman, Paul (1980). The classification of Chadic within Afroasiatic. Universitaire Pers Leiden.
- Lamberti, Marcello (1991). "Cushitic and its Classifications". Anthropos. 86 (4/6): 552–561.
- Lamberti, Marcello (1993). Materialien zum Yemsa. Studi Linguarum Africae Orientalis, Band 5. Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter. ISBN 3-8253-0103-6.
General Omotic bibliography
[edit]- Bender, M. L. 1975. Omotic: a new Afroasiatic language family. (University Museum Series, 3.) Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University.
- Zaborski, Andrzej. 1986. Can Omotic be reclassified as West Cushitic? In Gideon Goldenberg, ed., Ethiopian Studies: Proceedings of the 6th International Conference pp. 525–530. Rotterdam: Balkema.
External links
[edit]- Is Omotic Afro-Asiatic? Archived 2021-02-24 at the Wayback Machine by Rolf Theil
| International | |
|---|---|
| National | |
| Other | |
Omotic languages
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The Omotic languages form a proposed branch of the Afroasiatic language phylum, consisting of around 30 distinct languages spoken primarily in southwestern Ethiopia, particularly in the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Regional State, as well as parts of Oromia, Amhara, and Benishangul-Gumuz regions.[1] These languages are used by approximately 8 million speakers, with the largest groups including the Ometo and Gonga subgroups accounting for the majority of users. The term "Omotic" was coined in reference to the Omo River area, the historical heartland of many of these languages, and the family was first recognized as a distinct unit within Afroasiatic by Harold Fleming in the late 1960s.[2][3]
The classification of Omotic has been highly controversial since its proposal, with debates centering on whether it constitutes a coherent, independent branch of Afroasiatic or should be reclassified as part of the Cushitic branch, given shared features and potential historical contact.[3] Some scholars argue for affinities with Chadic languages based on lexical cognates, such as up to 80% similarity in body part terms, while others suggest that certain subgroups, particularly South Omotic, may show Nilo-Saharan influences, raising questions about the internal unity of the family; these debates continue with recent studies emphasizing the need for more data.[3][4] These controversies stem largely from limited documentation of many Omotic languages, reliance on lexicostatistics over phonological and grammatical comparisons, and insufficient representative data in early studies.[3] Proposed solutions include comprehensive comparative research using diverse lexical, phonological, and morphological evidence from a broader range of languages to clarify relationships within Afroasiatic and beyond.[3]
Internally, Omotic is typically divided into several subgroups, including North Omotic (encompassing Ometo, Gonga-Gimojan, Dizoid, and Mao languages such as Wolaitta, Kafa, Sheko, and Hozo), South Omotic (including Aari, Hamar, and Dime), and sometimes isolated groups like the Yemsa and Ganza languages.[2][5] The Ometo subgroup, with around 4 million speakers as of 2007, is the most populous and includes widely spoken languages like Wolaitta and Gamo, while smaller groups like the Mao languages (Hozo, Seze, Bambasi, and Ganza) number fewer than 50,000 speakers combined.[6][5] Most Omotic languages remain primarily oral traditions, with limited written forms using either the Ge'ez script or Latin alphabet, and documentation efforts have increased in recent decades through grammars and dictionaries.[2]
Linguistically, Omotic languages are notable for features such as robust tonal systems, often with high-low tone contrasts; terminal vowels that mark grammatical functions; sibilant harmony affecting consonants; and widespread use of switch-reference marking in verb forms to indicate subject continuity or change between clauses.[5][7] These traits are common across the family but less typical in neighboring Ethiopian languages, highlighting potential areal influences from Cushitic contact in the region.[5] Vowel systems typically include five short and five long vowels, and many languages exhibit monosyllabic roots in core vocabulary, contributing to their typological diversity within Afroasiatic.[2]
Recent computational approaches leverage these shared roots for practical applications, such as bilingual word-level language identification in Omotic-Cushitic contact zones. A 2025 study on Wolayta and Gofa (both North Omotic) uses annotated datasets of shared terms like kaallidi ("while following") and biittaa ("bad") to train models distinguishing intra-Omotic from Cushitic influences, achieving an F1-score of 0.72 via BERT-LSTM architectures.[53] This method highlights how etymological overlaps aid in detecting code-mixing in multilingual Ethiopian texts.[53]
Overview
Definition and scope
The Omotic languages constitute a proposed branch of the Afroasiatic language family, encompassing approximately 28 to 30 distinct languages spoken primarily in southwestern Ethiopia and extending into parts of western Sudan.[8][6] These languages are traditionally grouped within Afroasiatic, but their inclusion in the phylum, as well as the internal unity of the Omotic branch itself, remains disputed due to limited shared cognates (often below 10% with other Afroasiatic branches like Cushitic) and significant grammatical divergences.[3] Some scholars argue for closer ties to Chadic or even suggest exclusion from Afroasiatic altogether, citing insufficient evidence of genetic relatedness.[3] The term "Omotic" was coined by linguist Harold C. Fleming in 1969, drawing from the Omo River basin, the geographic heartland of many of these languages, to highlight their distinct typological profile previously misclassified under Cushitic.[9] This naming reflected an effort to recognize Omotic as an independent coordinate branch of Afroasiatic, separate from the more established Semitic, Egyptian, Berber, Cushitic, and Chadic groups.[10] Omotic exhibits considerable internal diversity, with primary divisions into North Omotic (including the populous Ometo subgroup as well as Gonga-Gimojan, Yemsa, and Ganza) and South Omotic (such as Aari, Hamer, and Bench), though the precise boundaries between languages and dialects remain debated.[2] Estimates place the total number of speakers at approximately 7.9 million as of the 2020s, with larger populations in the Ometo and Gonga subgroups. Certain peripheral varieties, like Ongota, display such extreme divergence that they are often treated as isolates potentially outside the Afroasiatic sphere.[11]Geographic distribution and speakers
The Omotic languages are primarily distributed across southwestern Ethiopia, centered in the Omo River valley and the southern sections of the Great Rift Valley, encompassing administrative zones such as South Omo and Bench Maji within the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region (SNNPR). Enclave varieties occur outside this core area, including Yemsa in Oromia Region and Shinasha in Amhara Region, while certain Mao languages like Ganza extend into border regions of Sudan. This spatial concentration reflects historical settlement patterns among Omotic-speaking ethnic groups amid diverse linguistic landscapes dominated by neighboring Afroasiatic branches.[4][12] Omotic languages are spoken by an estimated 7.9 million people as of the 2020s, with individual varieties varying widely in scale. Wolaitta, one of the largest, has approximately 2.4 million speakers (2007 census) concentrated in the Wolaita Zone of SNNPR, while Bench accounts for approximately 350,000 speakers in the Bench Maji Zone. Smaller languages, such as certain Mao or Aroid varieties, have fewer than 10,000 speakers each, highlighting the demographic diversity within the family.[2] The vitality of Omotic languages is uneven, with many facing endangerment due to the sociolinguistic pressures of Amharic as the national working language and the expansion of regional lingua francas. For instance, Ganza is classified as critically endangered with fewer than 5,000 speakers, driven by assimilation into dominant Semitic and Cushitic varieties.[13] Larger speech communities like Wolaitta exhibit greater stability, bolstered by ethnic mobilization and local administrative recognition. Multilingualism prevails among speakers, who frequently acquire proficiency in adjacent Cushitic languages such as Oromo or Highland East Cushitic varieties, or in Amharic, facilitating interethnic communication and access to education and governance.[14][15]Classification
Historical development
The classification of Omotic languages traces back to the late 19th century, when Austrian linguist Leo Reinisch, through extensive fieldwork in the Horn of Africa, identified a southern group of Cushitic languages, including the "Sidamo" cluster, based on shared phonological and lexical features with core Cushitic varieties.[16] This grouping encompassed languages spoken in the Omo River region of southwestern Ethiopia, though Reinisch did not yet distinguish them as a separate entity from Cushitic.[16] Initial classifications often lumped these languages with Cushitic due to geographic proximity and superficial resemblances in vocabulary and structure.[16] In the mid-20th century, British linguist A. N. Tucker advanced the recognition of these languages as a distinct peripheral cluster. In his 1967 study, Tucker coined the term "Fringe Cushitic" to describe a typological grouping of languages along the fringes of the Cushitic domain, particularly those in the Omo region, highlighting their aberrant morphological patterns such as reduced gender marking and innovative verb derivations compared to central Cushitic.[16] This proposal linked the group etymologically to the "Omo" geographic area and emphasized typological differences, paving the way for further separation from Cushitic.[16] Influenced by Joseph H. Greenberg's broader Afroasiatic framework, which in 1963 had provisionally included such languages within an expanded Cushitic branch via mass lexical comparison, Tucker's work underscored the need for reevaluation.[16] The 1970s marked a pivotal shift with American linguist M. Lionel Bender's systematic fieldwork and comparative analysis, culminating in his 1975 monograph establishing Omotic as the fifth major branch of the Afroasiatic family. Bender's research, including documentation of languages like Kafa and Shekkacho, revealed profound morphological divergences from Cushitic, such as the absence of typical Cushitic gender agreement and unique pronoun systems, justifying the separation. Through lexicostatistics and phonological reconstruction, Bender synthesized earlier observations into a coherent family-level classification, influencing subsequent Afroasiatic scholarship. By the 1990s, syntheses by scholars like Robert Hetzron and Bernd Heine refined these foundations amid debates over peripheral members. Hetzron's 1988 critique and 1997 contributions examined Omotic's internal structure and questioned the inclusion of groups like Mao, arguing for stricter genetic criteria based on shared innovations. Heine's areal studies in the same period highlighted contact-induced similarities with Cushitic while affirming Omotic's distinct branch status through comparative morphology. These works built on Greenberg's macro-family vision, solidifying Omotic's position while noting ongoing uncertainties for isolates like Ongota.Modern proposals and debates
In the early 2000s, Richard J. Hayward proposed a primary division of Omotic into North Omotic and South Omotic branches, while treating the Mao languages as a separate subgroup due to their divergent features.[17] This scheme emphasized internal diversity while maintaining Omotic's position within Afroasiatic, though Hayward noted the "empty quarter" of limited comparative data hindering deeper reconstructions.[18] Similarly, Roger Blench's 2006 analysis of livestock terminology in Omotic languages suggested strong areal links between the Mao subgroup and Nilo-Saharan families, attributing shared lexicon to historical contact rather than genetic affiliation. Contemporary databases like Glottolog (versions 4.0 and later, from the 2020s) recognize Omotic as a distinct clade comprising around 25-30 languages but question its robust ties to the broader Afroasiatic phylum, citing the absence of diagnostic shared features such as canonical verb morphology or core vocabulary resemblances.[19] This cautious approach reflects ongoing scholarly disputes about Omotic's coherence as a genetic unit, with some proposals favoring a looser areal grouping influenced by Cushitic and Nilo-Saharan neighbors. Recent debates have intensified scrutiny of Omotic's internal unity. In his 2018 edited volume on African languages and linguistics, Tom Güldemann argued against a monolithic Omotic family, advocating for more conservative classifications that prioritize verifiable sound correspondences and morphology over typological similarities, potentially splitting it into core and peripheral components. Michael Ahland's 2025 study on Mao pronouns similarly challenges full unity by proposing that peripheral groups like Mao exhibit innovations from contact, suggesting a "Core Omotic" versus "Peripheral Omotic" distinction based on participant-reference systems. A 2025 arXiv preprint on bilingual language identification further highlights East-West divisions within Omotic, using computational methods to delineate subgroups like North (including Ometo) and South (Aroid) while underscoring challenges in distinguishing genetic inheritance from areal diffusion.[20] Key controversies center on languages like Ongota and Ts'amakko, whose affiliations remain unresolved; Ongota is frequently classified as a linguistic isolate or unclassified Afroasiatic remnant due to its heterogeneous lexicon and minimal shared traits, while Ts'amakko (a Cushitic language) shows heavy Omotic substrate influence from prolonged contact.[11] Broader debates distinguish genetic features (e.g., tonal systems and agglutinative morphology) from areal ones acquired through Nilo-Saharan interactions, such as noun classification and verb serialization patterns in southwestern Ethiopian varieties. The Ethnologue database (2025 edition) continues to list 31 languages under the Omotic grouping, encompassing branches like North and South Omotic with a total of approximately 7-8 million speakers.[21] However, a 2025 white paper on Omotic in comparative perspective advocates elevating it to independent family status, arguing that insufficient proto-form reconstructions and pervasive Nilo-Saharan contact undermine its inclusion in Afroasiatic.[22] These proposals underscore the need for expanded documentation to resolve whether Omotic represents a coherent lineage or a sprachbund shaped by Ethiopia's linguistic mosaic.Branches and languages
North Omotic languages
The North Omotic branch encompasses approximately 20 distinct languages primarily spoken in the highlands and riverine areas of southwestern Ethiopia.[23] This branch forms part of the broader Omotic family within the Afroasiatic phylum and is characterized by its internal diversity, with major subgroups including Ometo (such as Wolaitta, Gamo, and Dawro), the Ta-Ne-Omotic cluster (Gonga-Gimojan languages like Kafa, Anfillo, and Shekkacho; Yemsa, also known as Janjero), Dizoid (Dizi, Sheko, and Nayi), Mao (including Ganza), and isolated languages like Shinasha (Borna).[1][4] These languages are generally not mutually intelligible across subgroups, though dialects within individual languages, like those of Kafa, may exhibit higher comprehension among speakers.[10] Among the key languages in this branch, Wolaitta stands out as the largest, with over 2 million speakers concentrated in the Wolaita Zone of the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region.[24] It is one of the few Omotic languages with a standardized writing system, traditionally using the Ge'ez (Ethiopic) script, though Latin orthography has also been employed in modern contexts.[25] Bench, another prominent language spoken by around 350,000 people (as of 2024) in the Bench Maji Zone, features a rich tonal system and an extensive lexicon related to agriculture, reflecting the subsistence farming practices of its speakers.[26][4] North Omotic languages often employ tonal systems with 4 to 6 contrastive levels, as seen in Bench and Shinasha, where tone distinguishes lexical items and grammatical categories.[10][27] Some varieties, such as those in the Gonga group, include labialized consonants (e.g., /kʷ/, /gʷ/), adding to their phonological complexity.[28] Due to geographic proximity to Cushitic-speaking communities, North Omotic languages show lexical influences from Cushitic, particularly in shared terms for pastoral and environmental concepts like cattle and honey.[29]South Omotic languages
The South Omotic branch comprises a small set of approximately 5-6 languages primarily spoken in the lowland regions of southwestern Ethiopia, including the Aroid group (such as Aari and Dime) and the Hamer-Baco cluster (encompassing Hamer, Banna, Bashada, and related dialects like Karo).[1][10][4] These languages are spoken by agro-pastoralist and farming communities along the Omo River valley, with total speakers numbering approximately 500,000.[30] Among the key languages, Aari stands out with around 300,000 speakers (as of 2025) and is notable for its elaborate kinship terminology, which encodes detailed distinctions in social relationships, such as affinal and descent-based ties, reflecting the cultural emphasis on clan structures.[31] Hamer, part of the Hamer-Baco cluster spoken by about 46,000 pastoralists, features dialectal varieties used in ritual contexts, including ceremonies like bull-jumping, where specialized lexicon underscores symbolic and initiatory practices.[32] These languages highlight the branch's cultural diversity, with speakers often maintaining bilingualism alongside neighboring Cushitic or Nilo-Saharan tongues. Linguistically, South Omotic languages are characterized by rich consonant inventories, typically exceeding 30 phonemes, including ejective stops like /p'/, /t'/, and /k'/ that contribute to phonetic complexity.[10] Syntactically, subject-object-verb (SOV) order predominates, aligning with broader Afroasiatic patterns, and verb serialization is common, allowing multiple verbs to chain without conjunctions to express complex actions— a trait potentially reinforced by areal influences from Nilo-Saharan neighbors.[10][7] This serialization facilitates nuanced event descriptions in narratives and daily discourse.Disputed and peripheral groups
The Mao languages form a small cluster tentatively classified within the Omotic family, though their affiliation remains contested due to significant lexical and structural divergences from core Omotic branches. This group comprises four languages: Northern Mao (also known as Mawes Aas'e), Hozo, Seze, and Ganza, primarily spoken in western Ethiopia by small communities totaling fewer than 10,000 speakers combined.[6] A 2025 study on the evolution of pronouns in Mawes Aas'e highlights internal morphological innovations, such as the development of a dual-plural opposition and fusion of subject markers, which align with broader Omotic patterns while refuting earlier claims of wholesale borrowing from Nilo-Saharan languages like Berta; however, the analysis acknowledges a potential substrate influence from Nilo-Saharan contact, complicating genetic reconstruction.[33] Further evidence of internal coherence among the Mao languages comes from shared syntactic strategies, including clause chaining with switch-reference markers (e.g., same-subject -in in Mawes Aas'e and different-subject -áʃ in Hozo), which parallel mechanisms found across Omotic and suggest an early divergence within the family rather than external origins.[5] Ongota, a moribund language spoken by a hunter-gatherer community in southwestern Ethiopia near the Omo River, exemplifies the challenges in classifying peripheral Omotic varieties due to heavy contact influence. With fewer than 10 speakers remaining as of 2025, primarily elders, Ongota is rapidly shifting to neighboring Ts'amakko, resulting in widespread code-switching and lexical borrowing that obscure its genetic ties.[34] Linguistic analyses reveal mixed traits, including verbal morphology and lexicon suggestive of South Omotic affiliation (e.g., parallels with Hamer-Banna in number marking), yet phonological and syntactic features also align with East Cushitic patterns, leading some researchers to propose it as an isolate or creolized form rather than a clear Omotic member.[35][11] Ts'amakko, spoken by around 30,000 people in the same region, adds to the debate as a language with hybrid characteristics that some early proposals linked to South Omotic, though most contemporary classifications place it firmly within the East Cushitic Dullay group of Afroasiatic. Its role as the dominant contact language for Ongota speakers has introduced Cushitic elements into the latter, such as simplified gender systems absent in typical Omotic structures, further blurring boundaries.[36][37] Other peripheral languages, such as Berta along the Sudan-Ethiopia border, are occasionally discussed in Omotic contexts due to geographic proximity and shared areal features like tonal systems, but are generally excluded from the family in favor of a Nilo-Saharan classification, with approximately 200,000 speakers across dialects like Berta proper and Fadashi.[38] These disputed and peripheral groups underscore how extensive language contact in the Ethiopia-Sudan borderlands—evident in borrowed vocabulary and grammatical calques—can produce superficial similarities that challenge genetic subgrouping within Omotic.[39]Linguistic features
Phonological features
Omotic languages generally possess consonant inventories ranging from 20 to 30 phonemes, a relatively high number compared to many other Afroasiatic branches. These inventories commonly include a series of ejective consonants, such as /kʼ/ and /tʼ/, alongside voiced and voiceless stops, fricatives, nasals, and glides. For example, glottalized consonants like /ɗ/ and /tsʼ/ appear in languages such as Shinasha, while implosives and geminates are also widespread. Labialization of consonants occurs in several languages, including Benchnon, Northern Mao, and Dizoid varieties, where velars and other segments may acquire secondary labial articulation. Clicks are rare and typically result from loanwords rather than native phonology.[40][41][40] Vowel systems in Omotic languages are typically modest, featuring 5 to 7 short vowels—often /i, e, a, o, u/—with phonemic length distinctions creating up to ten vowels in total, as reconstructed for Proto-Omotic. Long vowels like /iː, uː, eː, oː, aː/ contrast meaningfully with their short counterparts in most languages. Some variations exist, or the presence of breathy vowels in Aari and Karo. Central vowels like /ɪ/ and /ə/ appear as innovations in certain languages, including Shinasha, which has seven short vowels and their long forms. Reduced systems, lacking /a/ in some dialects, further highlight diversity within the family.[40][40][41] Suprasegmental features are prominent, particularly complex tonal systems that distinguish Omotic from other Afroasiatic groups. Most languages employ 2 to 6 tone levels, with tones serving both lexical and grammatical functions; for instance, Bench (Benchnon) has a six-tone system comprising five level tones and one rising tone. In Shinasha, a two-tone system (high and low) primarily marks lexical contrasts but also indicates grammatical categories like gender and possession, with high tones on high vowels raising to an extra-high pitch. Tone patterns often follow syllable structure, which is predominantly CV(C), allowing limited consonant clusters in tonal languages. These tones are considered an areal feature likely arising from contact with neighboring Nilo-Saharan languages, which are predominantly tonal.[40][42][41][40][43]Morphological features
Omotic languages exhibit a predominantly agglutinative morphology, relying heavily on suffixes to encode grammatical relations, though fusional elements are prominent in verbal inflections where tense, aspect, and mood are often fused into single morphemes.[44] This suffixing pattern is nearly exclusive across the family, with prefixes playing a minor role limited to certain derivations or pronominal clitics. Nominal morphology in Omotic typically includes gender marking, with a common masculine-feminine distinction realized through suffixes or vowel alternations, as seen in Aari. Number is marked by dedicated suffixes, such as plural -n(a) in Aari and other Aroid languages.[44] Possession is expressed via juxtaposition of possessor and possessed nouns or through possessive suffixes and pronouns, varying by branch; for example, in the Gimira-Yem-Kefoid group, suffixes indicate alienable possession.[44] Case marking, including dative, relies on suffixes like -o in Wolaitta for the dative.[45] Verbal morphology features complex conjugation systems built on roots augmented by affixes, with suffixes marking tense-aspect-mood categories; in Wolaitta, these include fusional endings for past and non-past tenses.[44] Derivational affixes, such as the causative suffix -iss- in Aari, transform intransitive roots into transitives by inserting between the root and tense markers. Pronouns frequently appear as clitics on verbs across branches.[44] A 2025 study of the Mao languages reveals pronoun innovations arising from serial verb constructions, where reduced forms from serialization have grammaticalized into enclitic pronouns unique to these peripheral Omotic varieties, as in Ganza's dual pronominal sets.[5]Syntactic features
Omotic languages are predominantly head-final, featuring a basic subject-object-verb (SOV) word order in transitive declarative clauses, with nominal modifiers preceding the head noun and postpositions marking oblique relations.[10] This structure is illustrated in Wolaitta.[10] In South Omotic languages like Hamer, word order exhibits flexibility in focus constructions, permitting object-subject-verb (OSV) variants alongside the default SOV in simple clauses.[46] Clause types in Omotic often employ verb serialization to encode complex events, where multiple verbs function as a single predicate sharing tense, aspect, and arguments without overt coordination markers.[10] This is prevalent in the Ometo branch, such as Wolaitta, through verbal compounding, and in the Mao group via dependent verb forms distinct from finite ones.[5] Relative clauses are typically formed with participles or verbal affixes and can precede or follow the head noun, as in Ometo languages like Maale and Wolaitta; for example, in Yemsa (North Omotic), prenominal relatives agree in gender and number with the head via subject and non-subject markers on the verb.[10][47] Typologically, Omotic languages display head-marking patterns, where verbs index possessors, subjects, or objects through pronominal affixes, alongside dependent-marking via case on nouns.[48] Question formation relies on intonation rises for polar questions or dedicated interrogative morphology, or focus marker omission in Zargulla declaratives.[10][49] In Bench (North Omotic), interrogatives often involve special verb inflections without dedicated particles.[50] Areal contact in the Ethiopian convergence zone influences syntactic options, including deictic systems and focus strategies that interact with core SOV patterns.[10]Comparative and historical linguistics
Proto-Omotic reconstruction
The reconstruction of Proto-Omotic relies on the comparative method, as applied by M. Lionel Bender in his seminal work on Omotic morphology, which identifies regular sound correspondences to propose ancestral forms. For instance, Bender established regular sound correspondences across the family's diverse subgroups. This approach has allowed for partial reconstruction of core vocabulary and grammatical elements, though the high degree of internal variation limits the depth of the proto-language recovery.[4] Key reconstructions include personal pronouns, with Bender proposing forms that show some stability across branches. Numerals have also been partially reconstructed based on comparisons in North and South Omotic languages. Body part terms provide further evidence, exemplifying cognates supported by consistent phonetic patterns. These reconstructions are based on limited but representative lexical sets, emphasizing basic vocabulary to establish family coherence. Challenges in Proto-Omotic reconstruction stem from low cognacy rates due to the family's phonological and lexical diversity, making it difficult to achieve comprehensive etymologies beyond core items. Tone reconstruction remains tentative, with high tone often posited as a default in the proto-system, though evidence is sparse given the variable tonal inventories in daughter languages. Partial proto-vocabulary, including pronouns and numerals, supports potential links to other Afroasiatic branches, such as shared roots for numerals like 'two' (*kʷin- in some proposals) and body parts, but ongoing disputes about Omotic's internal structure and phylum membership constrain the development of a full phylogenetic tree.[4][51]Shared vocabulary and etymologies
Shared vocabulary across Omotic languages provides evidence for their genetic relatedness within the Afroasiatic phylum, particularly through cognate sets in basic lexicon such as numerals and body parts. For instance, the numeral "four" appears as be@e in Mao, bεcô in Hozo, hēE-a in Yemsa, and p³E-o in Mocha, all North Omotic languages, illustrating a common root with variations in tone and initial consonants.[51] Similarly, body part terms like "beard" or "chin" show the Proto-Omotic form ba@-, reflected in South Ometo as bās-, Koyra bāzā, and Dime batsi.[51] These cognates highlight internal patterns, such as sibilant shifts or vowel alternations, that distinguish branches like North and South Omotic while confirming shared inheritance. Etymological studies reveal significant borrowings from neighboring Cushitic languages, especially in pastoral and agricultural domains, due to historical contact in southwestern Ethiopia. In livestock terminology, Omotic languages often adopt Cushitic forms; for example, "goat" is k’al-óo in Burji (Cushitic) and kóle in Maale (South Omotic), suggesting diffusion of pastoral vocabulary.[52] Agricultural terms also show influence, with potential shared roots for natural elements like "earth" as ulla in Proto-Highland East Cushitic and alla’ in Haruro (Omotic).[52] Within Omotic, internal innovations appear in kinship and daily terms, such as "tree" as íínsè in Mawes Aas’e and ínsâ in Ganza (both Mao group), with construct forms indicating morphological integration.[5] The following table presents representative cognate sets from basic lexicon across Omotic branches, drawn from comparative analyses, including numerals, body parts, and natural world terms. These examples demonstrate recurrent patterns, such as initial k- or b- roots, while excluding disputed or borrowed items.| English | North Omotic | South Omotic | Source |
|---|---|---|---|
| Four | Mao: be@e, Hozo: bεcô | - | [51] |
| Beard/Chin | - | Ometo: bučč-, Wolayta: bučč-a, Dime: batsi | [51] |
| Tree | Mawes Aas’e: íínsè, Ganza: ínsâ | - | [5] |
| Earth | Haruro: alla’ | - | [52] |
| Goat | - | Maale: kóle | [52] |