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Joseph Kosuth, One and Three Chairs (1965)
Joseph Kosuth, One and Three Chairs (1965)

One and Three Chairs, is a conceptual work by Joseph Kosuth, from 1965. An example of conceptual art, the piece consists of a chair, a photograph of the chair, and an enlarged dictionary definition of the word "chair". The photograph depicts the chair as it is actually installed in the room, and thus the work changes each time it is installed in a new venue.

Two elements of the work remain constant: a copy of a dictionary definition of the word "chair" and a diagram with instructions for installation. Both bear Kosuth's signature. Under the instructions, the installer is to choose a chair, place it before a wall, and take a photograph of the chair. This photo is to be enlarged to the size of the actual chair and placed on the wall to the left of the chair. Finally, a blow-up of the copy of the dictionary definition is to be hung to the right of the chair, its upper edge aligned with that of the photograph.[1]

Early conceptual art

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"Event cards" of Fluxus-artists like George Brecht, Dick Higgins and Yoko Ono prefigured Kosuth's concern with the difference between a concept and its mode of presentation. These artists also tackled the problem of presenting "concepts" to an art audience. One and Three Chairs is, perhaps, a step towards a resolution of this problem. Rather than present the viewer with the bare written instructions for the work, or make a live event of the realization of the concept (in the manner of the Fluxus artists), Kosuth instead unifies concept and realization. One and Three Chairs demonstrates how an artwork can embody an idea that remains constant despite changes to its elements.

Kosuth stresses the difference between concept and presentation in his writings (e.g., "Art after Philosophy", 1969[2] ) and interviews (see the quotation below). He tries to intimately bind the conceptual nature of his work with the nature of art itself, thus raising his instructions for the presentation of an artwork to the level of a discourse on art. In 1963 Henry Flynt articulated these problems in the article "Concept Art".[3] This was a forerunner to Kosuth's thematization of "Concept Art" in "Art after Philosophy", the text that made One and Three Chairs famous.[4]

Interpretation

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The work One and Three Chairs can be seen to highlight the relation between language, picture and referent. It problematizes relations between object, visual and verbal references (denotations) plus semantic fields of the term chosen for the verbal reference. The term of the dictionary includes connotations and possible denotations which are relevant in the context of the presentation of One and Three Chairs. The meanings of the three elements are congruent in certain semantic fields and incongruent in other semantic fields: A semantic congruity ("One") and a threefold incongruity ("One and Three"). Ironically, One and Three Chairs can be looked upon as simple but rather complex model, of the science of signs. A viewer may ask "what's real here?" and answer that "the definition is real"; Without a definition, one would never know what an actual chair is.[citation needed]

There exist different interpretations of these semantic and ontological aspects. Some refer to Plato's Republic (Book X);[5] others refer to Ludwig Wittgenstein´s Tractatus[6] or to Charles Sanders Peirce's triad icon-index-symbol.[7] Dreher discusses the semantic problems of One and Three Chairs as inclusions of circles which represent semantic fields.[8]

The work tends to defy formal analysis because one chair can be substituted for another chair, rendering the photograph and the chair photographed elusive to description. Nevertheless, the particular chair and its accompanying photograph lend themselves to formal analysis. There are many chairs in the world; thus only those actually used can be described. Those chairs not used would not be analyzed. The enlarged dictionary definition of the word chair is also open to formal analysis, as is the diagram containing instructions of the work.[citation needed]

The concept and the theory of art

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Kosuth's thematization of semantic congruities and incongruities can be seen as a reflection of the problems which the relations between concept and presentation pose. Kosuth uses the related questions, "how meanings of signs are constituted" and "how signs refer to extra-lingual phenomena" as a fundament to discuss the relation between concept and presentation. Kosuth tries to identify or equate these philosophical problems with the theory of art. Kosuth changes the art practice from hand-made originals to notations with substitutable realizations, and tries to exemplify the relevance of this change for the theory of art.

In "Art after Philosophy," Kosuth provoked a confrontation with the formal criticism of Clement Greenberg and Michael Fried. Both exposed the concept of the art work as a non-substitutable instance realized by an artist who follows no other criteria than visual ones. They defined this concept as the core of modernism. In the sixties, Greenberg's and Fried's modernist doctrine dominated the American discussions on art; meanwhile, the artists Allan Kaprow, Dick Higgins, Henry Flynt, Mel Bochner, Robert Smithson and Joseph Kosuth wrote articles on art exemplifying a pluralistic anti- and post-modernist tendency which gained more influence at the end of the sixties. In 1968, Greenberg tried to disqualify the new tendencies as "'novelty' art": "The different mediums are exploding...when everybody is a revolutionary the revolution is over."[9] Sam Hunter offered a more positive view in 1972: "The situation of open possibilities which confronted artists in the first years of the seventies allowed a variety of means and many fertile idea systems to coexist, reconciling through the poetic imagination apparent contradictions."[10]

Extension

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Among the different versions of the work around the world, there is one on display at the Centre Pompidou in Paris, France.In Masterpieces,[11] Kaele suggests adding a third photographic print above the wooden chair representing an enlargement of the museum plan centered on the room where the work is located.

Quotation

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Joseph Kosuth, WBAI, April 7, 1970:

"I used common, functional objects - such as a chair - and to the left of the object would be a full-scale photograph of it and to the right of the object would be a photostat of a definition of the object from the dictionary. Everything you saw when you looked at the object had to be the same that you saw in the photograph, so each time the work was exhibited the new installation necessitated a new photograph. I liked that the work itself was something other than simply what you saw. By changing the location, the object, the photograph and still having it remain the same work was very interesting. It meant you could have an art work which was that idea of an art work, and its formal components weren't important."[12]

See also

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References

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

One and Three Chairs

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from Grokipedia
One and Three Chairs is a foundational work of created by American artist in 1965, comprising a wooden , a black-and-white photograph of the , and a mounted photographic enlargement of a definition of the word "chair." The installation measures approximately 32 3/8 x 14 7/8 x 20 7/8 inches for the chair, with the photographic panel at 36 x 24 1/8 inches and the text panel at 24 x 30 inches. Kosuth, born in 1945, produced this piece as part of the emerging movement in the mid-1960s, which shifted focus from aesthetic and material properties to ideas and intellectual inquiry. Drawing on influences from and Marcel Duchamp's readymades, the work reacts against Minimalism's emphasis on physical form by prioritizing linguistic and semiotic exploration. Through its tripartite structure, One and Three Chairs probes the nature of representation, questioning how an object, its image, and its verbal definition convey meaning and accuracy in art and language. The artwork challenges traditional notions of artistic value, rejecting criteria like beauty or technical skill in favor of conceptual depth and viewer engagement. Kosuth himself articulated this ethos in 1969, stating, “Being an artist now means to question the nature of .” Housed in collections such as the in New York, it exemplifies conceptual 's role in redefining the boundaries of what constitutes an artwork, influencing subsequent generations of artists to emphasize ideas over objects.

Background and Creation

Joseph Kosuth's Early Career

was born on January 31, 1945, in . He began his formal artistic training at the young age of ten, attending the Toledo Museum School of Design from 1955 to 1962, where he developed foundational skills in and design. Following this, Kosuth enrolled at the Cleveland Institute of Art in 1963 on a , studying for a year before traveling to in 1964, including a period of study with instructor Roger Barr at the American Center in . These early experiences in and abroad shaped his initial artistic pursuits, rooted in traditional media. In 1965, Kosuth relocated to New York City, immersing himself in the vibrant avant-garde art scene of the time. There, he enrolled at the School of Visual Arts, where he continued his education until 1967 and later joined the faculty. His involvement extended to collaborative and provocative initiatives, such as co-founding the Museum of Normal Art (MONA) in 1967, a short-lived conceptual project that served as a platform for emerging artists and critiqued conventional museum practices through ironic self-presentation. This gesture exemplified Kosuth's growing interest in institutional critique and non-traditional exhibition spaces amid New York's dynamic cultural environment. Kosuth's artistic shift became evident in 1965, when he abandoned painting in favor of conceptual explorations involving readymades and language. He began experimenting with everyday objects, such as chairs, presented alongside their photographic representations and dictionary definitions, as seen in early works like One and Three Chairs. These pieces marked his transition to language-based art, incorporating neon signage and textual propositions to interrogate the nature of representation and meaning, laying the groundwork for his mature conceptual practice. This period aligned with the broader emergence of conceptual art in the mid-1960s, though Kosuth's innovations were distinctly personal.

Influences from Conceptual Precursors

The legacy of Marcel Duchamp's readymades, which challenged traditional notions of artistic authorship and objecthood since the 1910s, fostered a pervasive sentiment in New York City's avant-garde circles by the mid-1960s. This atmosphere, emphasizing ideas and critique over aesthetic formalism, permeated galleries and publications that encountered upon arriving in New York in 1965. Through exposure to exhibitions at venues like the Green Gallery and publications such as An Anthology of Chance Operations (1963), Kosuth engaged with Duchampian provocations that positioned art as a conceptual inquiry rather than a visual product. Fluxus artists significantly shaped Kosuth's emerging conceptual strategies, particularly through their event scores and object-based interventions that prioritized ephemeral ideas over durable objects in the early 1960s. George Brecht's Three Chair Events (1961), a series of instructions involving chairs in varied settings to explore perception and language, prefigured Kosuth's triadic structure by blending physical form with textual propositions and performative potential. Similarly, Yoko Ono's instructional pieces, such as those in her book Grapefruit (1964), encouraged audience participation in conceptual acts detached from material permanence, influencing the dematerialization of art that Kosuth later pursued. These Fluxus practices, disseminated through New York performances and publications, underscored the shift from object-centric art to verifiable ideas, directly informing Kosuth's rejection of traditional media. Henry Flynt's 1963 essay "Concept Art," published in An Anthology, proposed a radical redefinition of as an endeavor composed of concepts akin to , where works function as verifiable propositions rather than sensory experiences. Flynt argued that concepts, as subjective yet decisive relations between names and meanings, could constitute aesthetic value independently of physical form, critiquing serial music and mathematics for their cognitive overreach while advocating "beautiful" theorems as . This framework profoundly impacted Kosuth, who adopted the notion of as tautological propositions, evident in his early investigations that treated definitions and representations as self-sufficient artistic statements. Flynt's emphasis on verifiability over emotional or visual appeal provided a theoretical foundation for Kosuth's analytical approach to representation in the mid-1960s.

Description of the Work

Physical and Representational Components

One and Three Chairs consists of three distinct components that together form the core of the installation. The first is a real manufactured wooden , measuring approximately 81 × 40 × 51 cm, selected as a standard, utilitarian object without artistic alteration. The second component is a full-scale black-and-white of that exact , typically measuring around 91.5 × 61.1 cm, mounted on the wall to provide a visual representation. The third element is an enlarged photographic copy of a definition of the word "chair," often sourced from a standard reference like the , stating: "a separate seat for one person, of various forms, with a back and usually four legs," presented in a panel approximately 61 × 76.2 cm. The deliberate selection of a mundane, everyday object such as a underscores the work's focus on rather than aesthetic or formal qualities, ensuring the emphasis remains on the concept of representation itself. Created in 1965, One and Three Chairs operates as an open edition, permitting substitutable elements like the physical chair and corresponding photograph in different iterations while preserving the definitional text. This structure allows the work to be recreated without unique fabrication, aligning with conceptual art's prioritization of ideas over singular objects.

Installation and Presentation

The installation of One and Three Chairs typically positions the physical chair directly on the floor against a , with the mounted at eye level to the left or right of the chair, and the enlargement secured nearby on the , establishing a triadic spatial configuration that links the components visually. This arrangement uses simple mounting methods, such as L-screws or pushpins, to affix the and text panel directly to the without frames or additional supports, ensuring a direct and unadorned presentation. A key aspect of the work's adaptability is its site-specific approach to the photographic component, where a new black-and-white image is captured in each venue to replicate the chair's appearance in that context, including variations in lighting, shadows, angles, and floor reflections. This process, often handled by a professional using analog techniques for a factual aesthetic, maintains consistency between the object and its representation while accommodating the unique conditions of different spaces, such as wooden floors at MoMA versus at the Stedelijk Museum. As Kosuth explained regarding the necessity of this renewal, "Everything you saw when you looked at the object had to be the same that you saw in the , so each time the work was exhibited the new installation necessitated a new photograph." Dimensions of the components vary slightly by installation to suit venue requirements, but in many institutional displays, the measures around 110 x 60 cm and the panel approximately 52 x 80 cm, with the itself scaled as a standard folding model (roughly 82 x 38 x 53 cm). These specifications, derived from early invoices and conservation records, underscore the work's flexibility, allowing reinstallations that preserve its conceptual integrity across diverse gallery environments without fixed constraints.

Conceptual Framework

Exploration of Representation

In One and Three Chairs (1965), employs a triadic structure to interrogate levels of representation, aligning the components with Charles Sanders Peirce's semiotic categories. The physical functions as an index, providing direct, existential evidence of the object itself; the accompanying black-and-white serves as an , offering a visual likeness that resembles but does not embody the original; and the enlarged dictionary definition acts as a , conveying the through linguistic without physical or visual resemblance. This arrangement draws on Peirce's framework of signs—where indices point to their object, icons resemble it, and symbols denote it conventionally—to highlight how each mode captures "chairness" differently, challenging viewers to navigate the interplay between immediacy and mediation. The work's semantic congruities lie in the shared reference to a "chair" across all three elements, creating a unified conceptual thread that unifies the installation under one idea. Yet, these are undercut by inherent incongruities: the object resists full depiction by the , which in turn cannot encapsulate the textual definition's abstract scope, nor can the text convey the object's tangible utility. This tension prompts reflection on the limits of representation, as no single form exhaustively represents the others, revealing the partiality of and the gaps in how is conveyed. Kosuth designed the piece to expose these fractures, encouraging audiences to question the adequacy of any representational mode in grasping an object's . Kosuth intended One and Three Chairs to exemplify tautological art, wherein the work constitutes a self-referential that defines its own meaning without relying on external validation or aesthetic appeal. By limiting content to the chair's self-evident iterations, the installation asserts 's as an idea that "refers only to its own ," embodying a closed logical loop that prioritizes conceptual investigation over sensory experience. This approach underscores 's capacity to function as a philosophical inquiry into its own conditions, distinct from traditional pictorial or formal concerns.

Language and Object Relationships

In Joseph Kosuth's One and Three Chairs (1965), the dictionary serves as a neutral, verifiable linguistic referent that anchors the work's exploration of signification, providing an objective textual description of "chair" drawn from a standard source such as . This component contrasts sharply with the physical , which embodies tangible utility through its functional form designed for sitting, and the accompanying , which offers a mimetic by visually replicating the object's appearance without its material presence or . By juxtaposing these elements, Kosuth underscores the limitations of each mode in fully capturing the , with the emphasizing —its precise, context-independent meaning—over the connotative associations evoked by the object's everyday use or the image's deceptive realism. The artwork draws on Ludwig Wittgenstein's philosophy, particularly his concept of language games from (1953), to illustrate how meaning emerges from use rather than inherent essence, revealing an incomplete signifying chain among words, images, and objects. In this framework, the dictionary entry functions as a rule-bound linguistic game that attempts to fix the term "" through definition, yet it fails to encompass the chair's practical application or the photograph's indexical reference, highlighting the relational and contextual nature of signification. Kosuth's arrangement thus demonstrates Wittgenstein's assertion that language's meaning is not static but performative, exposing gaps where verbal, visual, and material elements defer to one another without resolution. Furthermore, the piece alludes to Platonic forms, positing an "ideal chair" that transcends both physical instantiation and verbal approximation, thereby emphasizing themes of absence and deferral in representation. The real chair approximates this ideal through its utility but remains a shadow; the photograph imitates it further removed; and the definition verbally gestures toward it without embodiment, echoing Plato's hierarchy in The Republic where true forms exist beyond sensible imitations. This structure critiques the incompleteness of human attempts to access the abstract essence, aligning with Peircean semiotics in viewing the components as interconnected signs—icon, index, and —that point toward but never fully realize the signified.

Theoretical Implications

Art as Proposition

In Joseph Kosuth's practice, the meaning of art derives from its rather than from aesthetic or perceptual qualities, allowing the work to be infinitely reproducible without altering its essence. This approach shifts the focus from the to the underlying idea, enabling multiple iterations—such as different chairs, photographs, or entries—while preserving the conceptual integrity of the piece. In One and Three Chairs (), this principle is embodied through the presentation of a alongside its photographic representation and linguistic definition, demonstrating how the idea of "" transcends material form. The work functions as a tautological definition, wherein the components collectively assert "this is a chair" in a self-referential manner, emphasizing clarity and logical structure akin to analytic philosophy's pursuit of precise propositions. By juxtaposing the object, image, and text, Kosuth creates a closed loop of verification within the artwork itself, where each element defines and confirms the others without external empirical validation. This tautology underscores the artwork's role as an analytic proposition, stating its own condition as art through intentional presentation. Kosuth articulated this immaterial emphasis in his statement that the actual is always the "idea" of the work, prioritizing conceptual content over physicality. This view, rooted in his broader theoretical writings, positions as a propositional inquiry into its own nature, influenced briefly by Wittgenstein's ideas on as a system of meaningful propositions. Through One and Three Chairs, the idea becomes the primary artifact, rendering traditional notions of or obsolete in favor of replicable conceptual .

Critique of Formalist Art

One and Three Chairs stands in direct opposition to the modernist formalism championed by , which emphasized medium specificity and opticality as the core of artistic value, prioritizing the flatness of and the purity of sculptural form. By presenting a physical alongside its photographic representation and linguistic as coequal elements, Kosuth's work rejects this optical and medium-bound focus, instead elevating non-visual components— and documentation—to challenge the notion that art's essence lies in formal properties alone. This integration undermines Greenberg's advocacy for art's self-referential purity, where meaning is derived solely from visual experience within a specific medium. In his 1969 essay "Art After Philosophy," Kosuth articulates this critique by arguing that art functions as a "definition of art" or an analytical investigation into its own conceptual foundations, rather than a pursuit of aesthetic form. He dismisses formalist approaches as "mindless art" reduced to decoration, asserting that post-Duchampian art prioritizes ideas over physical or visual qualities. Popularized through works like One and Three Chairs, this essay shifted critical discourse from formal analysis to the interrogation of meaning, positioning conceptual art as a propositional inquiry that renders traditional aesthetics irrelevant. The work's implications extend to the dematerialization of the art object, as Kosuth contends that "the actual works of art are the ideas," not tangible forms, thereby prefiguring institutional critique by questioning the hierarchies that define an "original" artwork. In One and Three Chairs, the tautological presentation of object, , and text blurs distinctions between authentic and reproduced elements, challenging institutional validations of and . This approach critiques the and object-centrism of formalist traditions, emphasizing art's role in exposing the constructed nature of its own ontology.

Legacy and Extensions

Variations and Institutional Displays

The seminal 1965 version of One and Three Chairs resides in the collection of the (MoMA) in New York, where it was acquired in 1970 through the Larry Aldrich Foundation Fund. This iteration features a wood measuring 32 3/8 x 14 7/8 x 20 7/8 inches (82 x 37.8 x 53 cm), a mounted of the chair at 36 x 24 1/8 inches (91.5 x 61.1 cm), and a mounted photographic enlargement of the definition of "chair" at 24 x 30 inches (61 x 76.2 cm). Another key variation is held by the Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía in , consisting of a wooden , a black-and-white of the (approximately 52 x 80 cm for the right panel), and an enlargement of the dictionary definition (approximately 110 x 60 cm for the left panel). The in also houses a version in its collection, with overall dimensions of 115.5 x 219.3 x 44 cm; the measures about 83.1 x 40 x 41 cm, the 99.5 x 53.3 cm, and the text panel 61 x 76.2 cm. The process of for One and Three Chairs involves selecting a new chair and corresponding for each venue to ensure contextual , as there are no fixed installation guidelines from the artist, resulting in no singular "original" beyond the conceptual proposition. This approach has led to multiple authorized iterations since 1965, adapted during reinstallations without the artist's direct involvement in many cases. The work debuted in a 1965 exhibition in New York, marking Kosuth's early exploration of conceptual forms. It later appeared in major surveys, such as MoMA's exhibition in 1970, and has been included in institutional displays through the 2000s and 2010s, including retrospectives on language-based art. No major exhibitions featuring the work have been documented in the 2020s as of November 2025, though related adaptations continue in contemporary contexts.

Influence on Later Art

Joseph Kosuth's One and Three Chairs (1965) significantly influenced language-based installations in the 1980s, particularly through its exploration of text, image, and object dynamics, inspiring artists like and to incorporate linguistic propositions into visual and forms. Holzer, who studied Kosuth's conceptual approach to language as a core element of art, expanded this framework in works such as her Truisms series (1977–1979), where LED displays and posters presented aphoristic texts to interrogate power structures and social norms, building on the piece's of representation. Similarly, Kruger's appropriation of overlaid with bold, interrogative text in pieces like Untitled (I Shop Therefore I Am) (1987) contributed to critiques of signification within the conceptual tradition. The work played a pivotal role in the dematerialization debates of the late 1960s and 1970s, as documented in Lucy R. Lippard's seminal anthology Six Years: The Dematerialization of the Art Object from 1966 to 1972, where Kosuth's installation exemplified the shift toward idea-driven art over physical commodities. This emphasis on concepts as primary contributed to the broader conceptual turn, alongside Sol LeWitt's instructional works such as Wall Drawing #1 (1968), which prioritized directives for execution over the art object itself and fostered prioritization of linguistic and performative elements in art production. Furthermore, One and Three Chairs contributed to postmodern critiques of representation by challenging the of direct access to through objects and images, paving the way for deconstructive approaches in artists who questioned and authenticity in . In recent years, the piece has been recognized as a foundational element of , with a 2024 analysis in DailyArt Magazine highlighting its enduring examination of art-language intersections and its role in shifting focus from materiality to proposition. This ongoing relevance extends to discussions in digital semiotics, where the work's tripartite model informs analyses of virtual representations and algorithmic meanings in contemporary media art. Kosuth's own theoretical writings, such as his 1969 essay "Art After Philosophy," reinforced this legacy by asserting that post-Duchampian art exists conceptually, influencing subsequent generations to prioritize inquiry over aesthetic form.

References

  1. https://www.moma.org/collection/works/81435
  2. https://www.learner.org/series/art-through-time-a-global-view/writing/one-and-three-chairs/
  3. https://smarthistory.org/kosuth-one-and-three-chairs/
  4. https://www.guggenheim.org/artwork/artist/joseph-kosuth
  5. https://www.skny.com/artists/joseph-kosuth
  6. https://www.gardnermuseum.org/experience/contemporary-art/artists/kosuth-joseph
  7. https://www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au/collection/works/102.1999.a-c/
  8. https://www.brandstrup.no/news/joseph-kosuths-early-work
  9. https://www.theartstory.org/artist/kosuth-joseph/
  10. https://monoskop.org/images/4/46/Kosuth_Joseph_1969_1991_Art_After_Philosophy.pdf
  11. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Kosuth
  12. https://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/leo-castelli-gallery-records-7351/series-3
  13. https://faculty.ucr.edu/~ewkotz/texts/Kotz-2005-October111.pdf
  14. https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/c/conceptual-art
  15. https://www.moma.org/collection/works/156533
  16. https://henryflynt.org/aesthetics/conart.html
  17. https://www.e-flux.com/journal/29/68078/one-and-three-ideas-conceptualism-before-during-and-after-conceptual-art
  18. https://www.museoreinasofia.es/en/collections/artwork/one-and-three-chairs
  19. https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/2679847/174706_PhD_Stigter_20160527_Final_Manuscript_complete.pdf
  20. https://www.guggenheim.org/artwork/2362
  21. https://www.frieze.com/article/joseph-kosuth
  22. http://radicalart.info/concept/tautology/kosuth/index.html
  23. https://www.ubu.com/papers/kosuth_philosophy.html
  24. https://www.theartstory.org/movement/conceptual-art/
  25. https://www.museoreinasofia.es/actividad/tendencias-conceptuales/
  26. https://www.centrepompidou.fr/en/ressources/oeuvre/c5jdxb
  27. https://english.cultureelerfgoed.nl/binaries/cultureelerfgoed-en/documenten/publications/2011/01/01/inside-installations/Inside-Installations-Theory-and-Practice-in-the-Care-of-Complex-Artworks.pdf
  28. https://www.moma.org/audio/playlist/297/49
  29. https://www.re-thinkingthefuture.com/architectural-community/a12322-life-of-an-artist-jenny-holzer/
  30. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Barbara-Kruger
  31. https://www.thecollector.com/postmodern-art/
  32. https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-1010/conceptual-and-performance-art/conceptual-performance/a/joseph-kosuth-one-and-three-chairs
  33. https://www.dailyartmagazine.com/conceptual-art-of-joseph-kosuth/
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