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Professional Women's Hockey Players Association
Professional Women's Hockey Players Association
Professional Women's Hockey Players Association
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The Professional Women's Hockey Players Association (PWHPA) is a nonprofit organization dedicated to advocating for the promotion of professional women's ice hockey.[1] It was founded in May 2019 following the dissolution of the Canadian Women's Hockey League. PWHPA members expressed dissatisfaction with the operations of the existing professional National Women's Hockey League (renamed the Premier Hockey Federation in 2021) and vowed to boycott existing women's leagues and to work towards the establishment of a unified, financially sustainable professional league. From 2019 to 2023, the PWHPA organized a series of exhibition seasons, known as the Dream Gap tours, to generate support towards its goal.

Key Information

After partnering with Mark Walter and Billie Jean King in 2022, the PWHPA organized a formal players union in 2023 and negotiated a collective bargaining agreement. Mark Walter Group and BJK Enterprises then purchased the Premier Hockey Federation and wound down its operations before announcing the launch of the new Professional Women's Hockey League (PWHL). The PWHL began play in 2024 with six teams in Canada and the United States, marking a major victory for the PWHPA.

History

[edit]

Establishment

[edit]
Further information: Collapse of the Canadian Women's Hockey League

Beginning in the late 1990s, several high-level amateur and semi-professional women's ice hockey leagues appeared in Canada and the United States. The National Women's Hockey League was founded in 1999, mainly comprising teams in Eastern Canada in Ontario and Quebec, before folding in 2007. A western counterpart, the Western Women's Hockey League (WWHL) launched in 2004 and lasted until 2011. The Canadian Women's Hockey League (CWHL) was founded to replace the NWHL in 2007, and it strove to become a professional league while placing a greater emphasis on player involvement. However, the league could typically pay only for travel, ice time, uniforms, and some equipment, and did not pay players a salary.[2][3] From 2011 to 2015, the CWHL was the only organized top-level women's hockey league in North America.[4]

In 2015, a second National Women's Hockey League (NWHL) was launched in the United States, and was the first women's hockey league to pay its players.[5] In 2017, the CWHL followed suit and began paying its players a stipend.[6] Following the 2018–19 season, the CWHL abruptly ceased operations, citing the fragmentation of corporate sponsors between the CWHL and NWHL, a lack of viewership, and reduced revenue from a partnership in China as eroding the league's financial stability.[7][8] This left the NWHL—which had earlier in 2019 approached the CWHL to propose a merger—as the only top-level option for women's players.[8]

On May 2, 2019, over 200 players from both the CWHL and NWHL released a joint statement, underlined by the hashtag #ForTheGame, announcing their intent to boycott any North American professional league for the 2019–20 season, citing their dissatisfaction in the operations of both leagues in that neither provided health insurance or a livable salary.[9][10] They stated their intent to work towards the establishment of a unified, financially sustainable professional league. On May 20, the players formed a non-profit called the Professional Women's Hockey Players Association (PWHPA) to advance their mission.[11][12][13] Initially, PWHPA members hoped that the boycott would last for only one year.[14]

Boycott and Dream Gap tour

[edit]

Relations with the NWHL/PHF

[edit]

The NWHL responded to the boycott announcement by stating that they were pursuing increased sponsorships with a view to increasing player salaries—which had reportedly decreased to as low as $2,000 in some cases—and an offer to give players a 50 percent split of revenue on league sponsorship and media deals.[15][16] However, with a large number of North American players boycotting the NWHL, more than half of the signed players on opening rosters for the 2019–20 NWHL season were new to the league.[17]

Over the next four years, the relationship between the PWHPA and the NWHL was strained. While a significant number of players defected from the NWHL in 2019 to help form the PWHPA, dozens would return to the league in the following years, citing improving conditions—the league markedly increased its salary cap after 2019—and a desire to play in a league.[18][19] Notably, in 2023 Noora Räty resigned from the PWHPA board to sign a six-figure contract with the Metropolitan Riveters of the then-rebranded Premier Hockey Federation (PHF).[20][21] However, the PWHPA consistently criticized the PHF and its business model, and rejected overtures to merge. PWHPA players raised concerns over a perceived lack of professionalism and sub-standard conditions within the NWHL.[22][23] American Olympian Hilary Knight stated that the NWHL was "a glorified beer league" offering the "illusion of professionalism",[23][24] while retired Canadian legend Hayley Wickenheiser called it a "so-called pro league".[25] PWHPA players stated that they disagreed with the NWHL's approach to growing women's hockey, calling for a less incremental approach.[26][27] NWHL founder and commissioner Dani Rylan was sometimes cited as a point of contention; Rylan ultimately resigned in 2020.[25][28]

Another significant issue was the role of the National Hockey League (NHL). While the PWHPA hoped to receive support from the NHL in establishing a new professional league, a number of NHL teams had previously established ties with PHF teams, and the NHL stated that it would not put its support fully behind one effort or the other, encouraging the sides to merge.[29][30]

Anissa Gamble during the PWHPA Dream Gap Tour in September 2019.

PWHPA partnerships

[edit]

After its formation, the PWHPA focused its efforts on courting corporate and media sponsorships, while also managing to form a number of partnerships directly with NHL teams.[31][32] The PWHPA launched a "Dream Gap" tour, meant to highlight the disparity in support between men's and women's hockey and to increase support for the latter. As the PWHPA boycott stretched beyond a single season, the Dream Gap tour became an annual "season" of exhibition tournaments. The final Dream Gap season saw four teams competing for the Secret Cup, with Team Harvey's prevailing over Team Scotiabank in the final.[33]

The PWHPA formed an early advisory partnership with American tennis legend Billie Jean King, an early advocate for women's equality in sports and the founder of the Women's Tennis Association.[34] In December 2019, the PWHPA partnered with the ECHL and chose four members to participate in the 2020 ECHL All-Star Game, with Dani Cameranesi, Kali Flanagan, Gigi Marvin, and Annie Pankowski each assigned to one of the four teams.[35] The 2020 NHL All-Star Game also expanded its inclusion of female skaters from previous seasons to a full three-on-three exhibition game between teams composed of American and Canadian women's players.[36] Eighteen of the 20 players were active PWHPA members and the event was supported by the PWHPA, but it was not directly in partnership with the association.[37][38] In March 2020, the PWHPA partnered with the Arizona Coyotes for their sixth Dream Gap tour stop in Tempe, Arizona.[39] The New York Rangers became the first NHL team to host a PWHPA game on February 28, 2021, at Madison Square Garden.[40] The PWHPA announced it would also be partnering with the Toronto Maple Leafs with the team hosting a game and providing marketing assistance and sponsorship consultation services.[41]

In 2022, the PWHPA entered a formal partnership with Mark Walter, owner of the Los Angeles Dodgers, and Billie Jean King with the intent to launch their new professional league.[42]

Launch of the PWHL

[edit]
Main article: Professional Women's Hockey League

In February 2023, the PWHPA organized a formal labour union—the Professional Women's Hockey League Players Association (PWHLPA)—to negotiate a collective bargaining agreement (CBA) for the new league.[43][44] The eight-year agreement was finalized in June and ratified by July 3, making it effective from August 1, 2023, to July 31, 2031.[45][46] The CBA establishes an average salary target of $55,000 for teams in the new league, with each team required to sign at least six players to a minimum salary of $80,000 and no more than nine players to a league minimum $35,000, with the minimum and average salaries slated to increase 3% per year of the agreement.[45] The agreement, which included health and other employment benefits, marked a major victory for the PWHPA.

On August 29, 2023, the union hired Brian Burke to serve as its executive director.[47] Its executive committee comprises Brianne Jenner, Sarah Nurse, Hilary Knight, Liz Knox, and Kendall Coyne Schofield.[48][49]

During the ratification vote for the new CBA, it was announced on June 30, 2023, that Mark Walter Group and BJK Enterprises had purchased the PHF, opening the way for the establishment of a new, unified league.[50][51][52] The PHF was ultimately wound down and in late August, the partners announced the foundation of the Professional Women's Hockey League (PWHL), with the intent of beginning play in January 2024.[53] Six teams—three each based in Canada and the United States—were established, a PWHL draft was held in September 2023, and training and evaluation camps were held in November and December.[54] League play began on January 1, 2024.[55]

Leadership

[edit]

Ballard Spahr, LLP provided pro bono support to help create the PWHPA. Nine players made up the founding board: Jocelyne Lamoureux-Davidson, Alyssa Gagliardi, Brianne Jenner, Hilary Knight, Liz Knox, Noora Räty, Kimberly Sass, Kendall Coyne-Schofield, and Shannon Szabados.[56] On September 2, 2020, Knox resigned from the board to allow Sarah Nurse, one of only a few black players in the PWHPA, to take her place.[57] Former CWHL interim commissioner Jayna Hefford was hired as the PWHPA operations consultant in August 2019.[58]

In May 2023, Räty resigned from the board to sign a PHF contract.[21] By then, the PWHPA board had eight members, seven of whom were founders: Lamoureux-Davidson, Gagliardi, Jenner, Knight, Knox, Nurse, Sass, and Coyne-Schofield.[20]

Support from the NHL was credited with helping to expedite the launch of the PWHL.[30]

PWHPA seasons

[edit]
A ceremonial face-off during the 2019 Toronto Dream Gap tour stop. Vicky Sunohara dropping the puck between Brianne Jenner and Marie-Philip Poulin.

As the PWHPA worked towards its goal of establishing a new professional league, it organized Dream Gap tour "seasons" featuring exhibition matches between select PWHPA players competing for sponsorship and prize money.[59][60] Seasons also frequently featured exhibition matches between PWHPA members and other teams, including games against NHL alumni.[61][62]

In 2019, the PWHPA set up regional training hubs in Montreal, Mississauga, Markham, Calgary, Boston, Buffalo, Minnesota, and the Northeast United States, where players could practice multiple times a week.[34] The PWHPA's first season, which lasted from September 2019 to March 2020, comprised a tour of showcase exhibition games; at each tour stop, teams were formed and named after team captains—e.g. the first showcase in Toronto featured teams captained by Rebecca Johnston, Brianne Jenner, Liz Knox, and Marie-Philip Poulin.[34] The season was meant to include a stop in Japan with PWHPA players facing the Japanese national team; however, the tour was cancelled due to concerns about the COVID-19 pandemic.[63]

Subsequent seasons featured more stable rosters based out of five training hubs and on teams named after sponsors. The second season was buoyed by a $1 million sponsorship agreement with Secret.[64] It was played in regional hubs due to the ongoing pandemic, with three Canadian-based teams playing games in Calgary and two American-based teams making stops in three US cities.[65][66] The third season occurred at the same time as national team players were centralized ahead of the 2022 Winter Olympics, meaning that many of the top PWHPA players were not available on tour; however, a team of PHWPA all-stars played a series of games against national teams, including Team Canada, Team USA, and Team Japan.[67][68] The PWHPA also hosted a post-Olympics "Rivalry Rematch" between the Canadian and American teams in Pittsburgh.[69]

For what proved to be the final season, four teams competed and for the first time accumulated points throughout the season in a bid for the championship, the Secret Cup.[33][70] Teams were no longer based in regional hubs, with rosters constructed based on a new player-ranking system.[71]

Dream Gap Tours
Season Teams Locations Champion
2019–20 Various Toronto (twice)
Hudson, New Hampshire
Chicago
Philadelphia
Tempe, Arizona 		None
2020–21 Team Adidas (Minnesota)
Team Women's Sports Foundation (New Hampshire)
Team Bauer (Montreal)
Team Scotiabank (Calgary)
Team Sonnet (Toronto) 		New York City
Chicago
St. Louis
Calgary 		Team Adidas (US)
Team Bauer (Canada)
2021–22 Team Adidas (Minnesota)
Team Bauer (Boston)
Team Harvey's (Montreal)
Team Scotiabank (Calgary)
Team Sonnet (Toronto) 		Truro, Nova Scotia
Toronto
Ottawa
Arlington, Virginia
Montreal 		Various
2022–23 Team Adidas
Team Harvey's
Team Scotiabank
Team Sonnet 		Montreal
Truro
Pittsburgh
Collingwood, Ontario
Southern Ontario
Tampa Bay
Arlington
Southern California 		Team Harvey's

References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Professional Women's Hockey Players Association

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from Grokipedia
The Professional Women's Hockey Players Association (PWHPA) is a founded on May 20, 2019, by elite female players committed to advancing a single, viable professional league with equitable pay, comprehensive health benefits, and sustainable business models. Emerging in the wake of the Canadian Women's Hockey League's sudden dissolution earlier that year—which left players without compensation for the season—the PWHPA rallied over 200 top athletes, including Olympic medalists like and , to boycott the underfunded National Women's Hockey League (later rebranded as the ), where salaries ranged from $2,500 to $10,000 annually amid organizational instability. To sustain visibility and momentum, the group launched the "Secret's Dream Gap Tour" in , hosting exhibition games that drew crowds and sponsors but operated at a loss, highlighting the players' resolve to reject suboptimal conditions rather than perpetuate a fragmented, low-revenue ecosystem. While the strategy disrupted careers—prompting some players to compete overseas or step away—the PWHPA's unified front pressured stakeholders, culminating in 2023 partnerships that facilitated the 's debut in 2024, with minimum salaries of $35,000, centralized marketing, and NHL advisory involvement, effectively realizing the association's core objectives through demonstrated collective leverage.

Historical Context

Collapse of the Canadian Women's Hockey League

The Canadian Women's Hockey League announced its dissolution on March 31, 2019, after 12 seasons of operation, citing an economically unsustainable business model that rendered continued functionality impossible. The league would cease all activities effective May 1, 2019, leaving approximately 150 players without a primary professional outlet in . This decision followed chronic financial shortfalls, despite efforts to secure sponsorships and expand visibility. The CWHL's structure as a non-profit relied predominantly on subsidies from corporate sponsors and entities, which proved insufficient to offset operational costs exceeding from ticket sales, merchandise, and limited opportunities. figures remained low throughout its history, averaging around 255 spectators per game in the 2012-13 season and rarely surpassing 1,000 in later years, which constrained commercial partnerships and fan-driven . Player compensation highlighted these constraints: the league introduced modest stipends only in the 2017-18 season, ranging from $2,000 to $10,000 CAD per player annually based on tenure, far below livable wages and insufficient for many to forgo secondary employment. This insolvency mirrored a pattern of instability in prior women's professional hockey ventures, including the original National Women's Hockey League, which abruptly ended operations in 2007 after failing to achieve financial self-sufficiency. Such repeated collapses underscored underlying market realities, including niche audience appeal and inadequate revenue mechanisms, rather than isolated mismanagement.

Pre-Existing Issues in the National Women's Hockey League

The National Women's Hockey League (NWHL), established in 2015 as the first league to offer paid salaries to women's professional hockey players, provided compensation ranging from $10,000 to $26,000 per season during its inaugural 2015-16 campaign. These figures fell short of enabling full-time careers, as players often required secondary jobs to cover living expenses, reflecting the league's part-time operational model. Health benefits were not guaranteed league-wide, with initial eligibility for failing to materialize consistently, leaving athletes without comprehensive coverage for injuries common in contact sports. Financial strains prompted severe measures early on, including a halving of salaries just over a month into the 2016-17 season to avert collapse, which reduced the per-team and intensified player economic precarity. Attendance metrics underscored shortfalls, averaging 954 spectators per game across 46 contests in the 2018-19 season, insufficient to offset operational costs or attract significant sponsorship and media partnerships. These low figures indicated limited domestic market demand, despite players' successes in Olympic and international competitions, as the absence of robust akin to NHL-affiliated hindered . League stability suffered from recurrent disruptions, including a shortened 2016-17 implemented amid cost-cutting reforms to preserve viability. Owners faced mounting losses, evidenced by salary reductions and later divestitures of teams by NHL affiliates like the in 2019, signaling unsustainable economics without broader investment. The 2019-20 season's curtailment due to amplified these foundational weaknesses, but pre-existing revenue deficits and fan engagement gaps—rather than external shocks alone—demonstrated the challenges of transitioning Olympic-caliber talent to a self-sustaining professional domestic circuit.

Formation and Objectives

Establishment in May 2019

The Professional Women's Hockey Players Association (PWHPA) emerged on May 2, 2019, when over 200 elite players, including U.S. national team members Kendall Coyne Schofield and Hilary Knight alongside Canadian stars Marie-Philip Poulin and Shannon Szabados, announced a collective boycott of the National Women's Hockey League (NWHL) for its upcoming season. This action followed the earlier collapse of the Canadian Women's Hockey League (CWHL) in March 2019 and stemmed from widespread dissatisfaction with low salaries—often under $5,000 per player annually—limited marketing support, and inadequate family benefits in existing structures. The players explicitly rejected participation in a non-viable professional environment, positioning the boycott as a unified demand for a single, sustainable league offering professional standards. Formal incorporation occurred later that month, with articles filed on May 20, 2019, in , establishing the PWHPA as a nonprofit, player-driven entity without an operational league of its own. Membership comprised the boycott's core group of top-tier athletes from , representing the majority of CWHL and NWHL rosters, who committed to forgoing paid play until demands were met. Initial leadership included an executive committee focused on advocacy rather than competition, with operations consultant Jayna Hefford providing strategic guidance. The association's foundational structure prioritized player agency, emphasizing negotiations for equitable , enhanced and branding rights, and comprehensive support for maternity and family leave—issues unaddressed in prior leagues. This model eschewed traditional franchise ownership, instead leveraging to influence potential league frameworks, with early public statements underscoring the need for investor-backed viability over patchwork operations.

Core Goals: Sustainable Professional League

The Professional Women's Hockey Players Association (PWHPA) sought to create a unified professional league emphasizing long-term financial viability through robust revenue generation, fan engagement strategies, and commercial partnerships, rather than perpetual subsidies from sponsors or governing bodies. Central to this vision were demands for living wages—estimated in early discussions as starting around $25,000 annually per player—coupled with comprehensive health benefits, pension contributions, and education support to enable full-time commitment without secondary employment. The association rejected incremental improvements in existing low-pay structures, arguing that shared revenues from ticket sales, broadcasting, and must underpin scalability, as prior models like the Canadian Women's Hockey League (CWHL) had faltered due to overreliance on non-recurring donations that ceased in 2019. This approach critiqued the causal shortcomings of subsidy-dependent leagues, which failed to cultivate independent audience growth or advertiser interest, resulting in chronic undercapitalization and player attrition. PWHPA leaders, including Jayna Hefford, stressed building a business-first where player talent drives marketable products, prioritizing investments in facilities, , and international outreach to expand beyond North American markets. By withholding participation from the National Women's Hockey League (NWHL), later rebranded as the (PHF), the PWHPA aimed to consolidate elite talent as leverage, compelling stakeholders like the NHL to back a model proven capable of self-sustenance over ad-hoc . The "Dream Gap" concept encapsulated this strategy, framing the economic chasm between Olympic triumphs—such as Canada's gold medals in 2014, 2018, and beyond—and pro-level instability as a solvable barrier through collective player , without expecting external rescues. This underscored a commitment to causal realism: sustainable leagues emerge from organic demand and efficient operations, not goodwill gestures, positioning the PWHPA as advocates for a merit-based industry where performance translates to equitable economic returns.

Operational Activities

The Player Boycott

On May 2, 2019, more than 200 of the world's top women's hockey players, including Olympic medalists from and the , jointly announced their decision to participation in any North American professional leagues for the 2019-20 season unless a unified, sustainable league with adequate player compensation and support was created. This move, initiated shortly after the Canadian Women's Hockey League ceased operations in March 2019, targeted the remaining National Women's Hockey League (NWHL) and aimed to compel investment from entities like the National Hockey League (NHL) by withholding elite talent. The strategy required players to forgo salaries—often minimal, averaging around $2,000 to $10,000 per season in the NWHL—and competitive opportunities, betting that the resulting talent drain would force structural changes rather than incremental improvements to existing operations. Participants explicitly rejected playing in the NWHL, viewing its model as insufficient for long-term viability, and sought a single league prioritizing professional standards over fragmented, low-revenue setups. The boycott significantly depleted the NWHL's roster depth, leaving it reliant on less experienced players and exacerbating attendance and revenue shortfalls that had already plagued the league. While the NWHL persisted into subsequent seasons, it operated at reduced competitive levels and rebranded as the Premier Hockey Federation (PHF) in September 2021 amid persistent financial losses totaling millions annually. Buy-in varied, with reports of dozens of boycotting players quietly inquiring about NWHL returns by mid-2019, highlighting the gamble's risks for individual careers amid uncertain outcomes.

Dream Gap Tour and Exhibition Events

The Dream Gap Tour, initiated by the PWHPA in September 2019, consisted of exhibition games across and the designed to showcase elite women's hockey talent, attract sponsorship revenue, and demonstrate market demand for a sustainable professional model without a permanent league infrastructure. The inaugural events began with a weekend showcase in at Westwood Arena on September 21–22, sponsored by , featuring teams captained by players such as and , followed by stops in Hudson, (near ), and , with additional exhibitions concluding a six-stop tour by early 2020. These formats emphasized player-led , including hubs in select cities like and , to minimize costs while building hype through competitive matchups and community clinics. Attendance at early events reflected modest but enthusiastic local interest, with the 2019 Toronto and Hudson showcases selling out their venues, drawing crowds in the range of 1,000 to 2,500 per game based on arena capacities and reported turnout, though exact figures varied by location and were not consistently publicized. Subsequent stops, such as a January event at 's Mattamy Athletic Centre, attracted approximately 1,100 fans. Funding primarily derived from corporate sponsorships, which served as the tour's main revenue stream; for instance, the 2021 iteration received a $1 million commitment from Secret deodorant to cover operations and player stipends, supplemented by partners like , , and Dunkin'. The tour spanned three seasons through 2022, encompassing roughly 20 events across multiple weekends, though scheduling remained inconsistent due to logistical challenges of travel-heavy and disruptions from the , which curtailed the 2019–20 season and limited 2020–21 activities to select hubs like and . By 2022, the format evolved to include five weekend series plus special exhibitions, such as partnerships with junior leagues for co-hosted games, yielding cumulative sponsorship revenue exceeding $1 million while highlighting viability metrics like growing corporate buy-in but underscoring the limitations of ad-hoc events in achieving scalable .

External Relations and Conflicts

Tensions with the NWHL and PHF

The Professional Women's Hockey Players Association (PWHPA) emerged in May 2019 following a of the National Women's Hockey League (NWHL), as top players cited the league's inadequate compensation—typically ranging from $5,000 minimum to $15,000 maximum per season—and lack of professional standards as unsustainable for full-time careers. PWHPA representatives described these conditions as failing to support players' basic needs, prompting the exodus of elite talent and the formation of an alternative advocacy model focused on higher benchmarks for pay and benefits. In response, the NWHL rebranded as the (PHF) in June 2021, announcing salary cap expansions and an average player compensation increase to $15,000 for the 2021-22 season, alongside plans for health benefits and league growth to eight teams. Despite these adjustments, the PWHPA rejected participation, pointing to unresolved issues with funding reliability, ownership transparency, and a viable as barriers to unification. This stance preserved separate ecosystems: the PWHPA's exhibition-based Dream Gap Tour featuring Olympic-caliber stars, versus the PHF's ongoing operations with a mix of emerging and veteran players. The resulting fragmentation divided available talent, with approximately 200 top players aligned with the PWHPA by 2021, while the PHF rostered others unwilling or unable to wait for alternative structures, leading to diluted competitive depth and scattered marketing efforts across both entities. PHF expressed openness to but highlighted the PWHPA's leverage through star power as complicating joint progress, underscoring mutual accusations of prioritizing ideals over pragmatic collaboration. Over time, sporadic player crossovers—such as select PWHPA members signing PHF contracts—intensified disputes over recruitment tactics and league legitimacy, further eroding trust.

Internal Divisions Among Players

Some professional women's hockey players dissented from the PWHPA's boycott strategy, choosing instead to participate in the NWHL (later rebranded as the PHF) to pursue incremental development of the sport through regular season play rather than exhibition events. These holdouts included several players with elite credentials, such as U.S. Olympian , who left the PWHPA in September 2022 to join the PHF, citing a desire for competitive games and structured training over continued abstention. Other notable PHF participants encompassed U.S. national team members like Hannah Brandt and Lee Stecklein, who prioritized building on-ice experience and league infrastructure amid the boycott's risks. Dissenters argued that the boycott extended unemployment for participants, as PWHPA members received only modest stipends from Dream Gap Tour exhibitions—typically under $10,000 per year from hockey sources, supplemented by off-ice jobs—while forgoing salaries available in the PHF, which rose from $5,000–$25,000 initially to up to $35,000 by 2022 for top earners. This approach, critics contended, potentially harmed careers through reduced competitive reps and injury risks from sporadic play, while overestimating collective leverage without a proven fan or revenue base to attract investors. PHF advocates, including league executives, viewed the PWHPA's refusal to engage as an attempt to undermine existing operations, fostering division that delayed unified progress. PWHPA supporters countered that abstaining from inadequate leagues preserved professional dignity and compelled structural change, as evidenced by eventual PWHL formation. Yet internal friction persisted, with some ex-PWHPA players like Finnish Noora Räty reporting exclusion from PWHL drafts in 2023, allegedly due to reprisals for prior PHF involvement, underscoring lingering resentments over noncompliance. Broader critiques emphasized that women's hockey lacked the return on justifying demands for parity, with PHF/NWHL operations incurring annual losses in the millions despite attendance growth, in contrast to the NHL's $6 billion-plus in 2022–23 revenue from established markets. This disparity, dissenters noted, rendered tactics causally tenuous without first demonstrating demand through play.

Transition to New Structures

Negotiations Leading to PWHL Formation

In May 2022, the Professional Women's Hockey Players Association (PWHPA) pivoted from independent advocacy by entering a formal with the Mark Walter Group—a private investment firm led by Los Angeles Dodgers owner —and Billie Jean King Enterprises to explore the creation of a unified . This collaboration addressed the PWHPA's longstanding challenges with funding and infrastructure, shifting focus toward private capital to enable sustainable operations rather than relying solely on player-led boycotts and exhibitions. Negotiations intensified over the following year, leading to the Group's acquisition of key assets from the (PHF)—including —on June 29, 2023. Valued in reports at over $25 million, this deal dissolved the PHF after its 2022–23 season, clearing the path for a single league structure and injecting substantial private investment that the PWHPA had been unable to secure independently. The acquisition underscored the causal role of investor backing, as it provided the and operational assets necessary to transition from fragmented player activism to a professionally managed entity, with advisory input from the National Hockey League enhancing viability. The PWHPA subsequently formalized the Professional Women's Hockey Players' Association as a union and ratified its inaugural (CBA) in July 2023, establishing terms such as a $2.3 million team salary budget, comprehensive health benefits including support, and minimum salaries starting at $80,000 for top designated players. This eight-year CBA, expiring in 2031, marked a hybrid model blending player input with investor-driven . On August 29, 2023, the nascent league announced its six founding teams in , (Minneapolis-St. Paul), , New York, , and , with a 24-game regular season set to begin in 2024. This announcement completed the transitional negotiations, highlighting how private investment's capital infusion—beyond the PWHPA's advocacy efforts—enabled rapid scaling to professional standards.

PWHPA Dissolution and Player Integration

The Professional Women's Hockey Players Association (PWHPA) transitioned away from independent operations by mid-2023, as its members shifted focus to the newly announced (PWHL). In February 2023, the PWHPA established the PWHL Players' Association (PWHLPA) as a formal union to negotiate on behalf of players entering the PWHL, building on the PWHPA's advocacy framework. This reorganization effectively ended the PWHPA's standalone role in organizing boycotts and exhibitions, with promotional contracts for PWHPA players concluding on August 31, 2023, after providing $24,000 stipends for related activities. On July 2, 2023, the PWHLPA ratified an eight-year agreement (CBA) with the PWHL, set to expire on July 31, 2031, which formalized player integration into league rosters and governance. The CBA established a minimum of $35,000 per player, with teams required to maintain average salaries around $55,000, representing a significant increase from prior PWHPA earnings models that relied on limited sponsorships and event stipends. Core PWHPA members, including top U.S. and Canadian national team players, comprised the majority of the PWHL's inaugural season rosters, with the PWHLPA representing all league players across six teams and approximately 138 active spots (plus reserves). No explicit announcement of PWHPA dissolution occurred, but the PWHL's launch on , 2024, under the ratified CBA concluded the association's era of external pressure tactics, absorbing its advocacy functions into union-led league negotiations. This integration unified elite players previously fragmented by the PWHPA's of predecessors like the (PHF), which ceased operations on June 30, 2023. The PWHLPA's structure, derived from PWHPA leadership, ensured continuity in player representation while embedding it within a single professional entity.

Leadership and Governance

Executive Leadership

The Professional Women's Hockey Players Association (PWHPA) was governed primarily through a player-led , established in May 2019 with nine members responsible for strategic oversight, including for equitable pay and sustainable league structures. Operational and financial reliance fell on corporate partnerships, with acting as the official equipment supplier for the Dream Gap Tour and sponsoring regional hubs like to support training and exhibition logistics. In August 2023, the PWHPA appointed Brian Burke, a former NHL general manager and executive with over four decades in hockey management, as its executive director to spearhead negotiations on collective bargaining agreements and league viability. Burke's involvement facilitated the pivot toward unified professional structures, drawing on his experience in labor relations from roles with teams including the Toronto Maple Leafs and Pittsburgh Penguins.

Influential Player Advocates

Kendall Coyne Schofield, captain of the women's national hockey team, served as a leading voice for the PWHPA, helping announce the 2019 of existing professional leagues due to inadequate salaries, lack of , and unsustainable business models. She emphasized that the NWHL failed to showcase the sport's best talent or provide professional standards, compelling over 200 top players to forgo seasons in pursuit of a viable league. Her Olympic pedigree, including gold medals at multiple IIHF Women's World Championships, lent significant visibility to the effort, though the initiative drew scrutiny for primarily representing elite athletes with national team sponsorships that buffered financial risks more than for lesser-known players. Sarah Nurse, a standout Canadian forward with Olympic silver and gold medals, contributed as a player representative on the PWHPA board, advocating for structural changes to enable full-time professional play. She participated in the Dream Gap Tour's exhibition games, using these events to demonstrate marketable talent and press for investor-backed leagues offering livable wages over the patchwork of low-paying options. Like Schofield, Nurse's prominence—bolstered by records like leading Canada in Olympic points—amplified the boycott's media reach, but critics observed that such stars' ability to sustain careers through international play contrasted with rank-and-file players who returned to leagues like the PHF for any income. These advocates' actions underscored personal stakes, as pre-boycott salaries often required second jobs or reliance on family support, hindering and career longevity in a sport demanding peak physical condition. Their focus on unified demands ultimately pressured stakeholders toward the PWHL's formation, though the elite-driven strategy sidelined broader player input.

Impact and Assessments

Achievements in Player Advocacy

The Professional Women's Hockey Players Association (PWHPA), formed on May 20, 2019, by approximately 200 top players following the collapse of the Canadian Women's Hockey League, successfully united elite talent in a of existing professional leagues to demand sustainable standards including equitable pay, health benefits, and infrastructure. This pressured the industry, highlighting the unsustainability of prior models where players often received minimal compensation—typically under $10,000 per season—and lacked full-time support, thereby catalyzing negotiations that resulted in the (PWHL) announcement on August 29, 2023. The PWHPA's advocacy directly influenced the PWHL's structure, owned by the Group via TWG Global, which committed significant resources to establish a centralized league with professional facilities and centralized marketing, marking the first unified North American professional women's hockey entity backed by major investors. Through its Dream Gap Tour, launched in 2019, the PWHPA organized showcase games across North American cities, drawing crowds and securing national broadcasts such as the February 2021 event aired on NHL Network and , which elevated player visibility and demonstrated market demand beyond traditional Olympic cycles. These exhibitions, often held in grassroots hockey communities, fostered direct engagement with fans and sponsors like Secret and , generating media exposure that showcased competitive play and attracted partnerships previously absent in fragmented leagues. The tours' emphasis on high-level competition without financial incentives for players underscored the advocacy's focus on long-term viability, contributing to a shift that debunked claims of insufficient audience interest by unifying top talent and prompting investor confidence. In the PWHL, PWHPA members transitioned as the inaugural players, with evolving into the league's players' union to enforce standards like minimum salaries starting at $35,000 USD in the 2023-24 season (rising to $37,131.50 by 2025-26), enabling approximately 39% of players to achieve full-time professional status without secondary employment. This represented a tangible advancement from prior part-time arrangements, complemented by comprehensive benefits including medical coverage and access to dedicated training facilities, outcomes directly attributable to the PWHPA's pre-league negotiations. The influx of backing from figures like , whose group acquired the competing in June 2023 to consolidate resources, validated the boycott's strategy by securing operational funding for expansion and stability. The PWHPA's efforts also correlated with empirical gains in engagement, as its tours in youth hockey hubs helped build awareness and participation; for instance, reported a 30% increase in female player registrations since 2022, amid heightened visibility from PWHPA-driven events. By prioritizing player-driven showcases over short-term earnings, the association not only preserved elite talent but also laid groundwork for broader growth, evidenced by sustained media interest and sponsor involvement that extended beyond the boycott phase.

Criticisms on Economic Realism and Fragmentation

The PWHPA's strategy, initiated in May 2019 following the collapse of the Canadian Women's Hockey League, resulted in a fragmented professional landscape by dividing top talent between the PWHPA's showcase events and the competing (PHF, formerly NWHL). This schism effectively halved the available player pool and audience base for any single entity, as PWHPA members refused to participate in PHF games, limiting and unified marketing efforts that could have accelerated overall growth. Critics, including Hockey Hall of Famer , accused the PWHPA of suppressing broader support for women's hockey by discouraging players from joining the PHF, thereby stifling potential revenue streams from a consolidated league structure. The 's persistence, including the PWHPA's unilateral termination of merger discussions with the PHF in April 2022, prolonged this division until the PWHL's formation in 2023, arguably delaying the emergence of a single, viable professional circuit by several years. Economic critiques of the PWHPA center on an alleged underestimation of market demand and overreach in salary expectations relative to revenue potential. Prior leagues like the CWHL and NWHL operated at chronic deficits, with player stipends often below $10,000 annually, reflecting limited fan interest evidenced by average attendances under 1,000 in some seasons. The PWHPA's demands for sustainable, full-time professional compensation—implicitly in the range of $35,000 minimum salaries as floated in planning documents—exceeded the fiscal capacity of fragmented operations, as showcase events generated insufficient sponsorship and ticket income to support such scales without external subsidies. Even post-PWHL, average attendance hovered at approximately 5,448 per game in the 2023–24 inaugural season, rising to 7,230 in 2024–25, figures that, while improved, remain far below thresholds for a six-team league without private investor backing or operational efficiencies. Skeptics argue this demonstrates causal realism in : low consumer demand, not institutional bias, constrains viability, akin to how minor men's leagues like the AHL rely on NHL affiliation as a talent pipeline rather than independent profitability. Defenders of the PWHPA maintain that the was essential to reject exploitative models and compel investment, citing the PWHL's establishment as validation of their leverage. However, detractors counter that such advocacy overlooked private capital's , as evidenced by the NHL's provision of advisory support to the PWHL without direct financial commitments, prioritizing over subsidizing unproven revenue streams. This stance aligns with market-driven caution, where leagues must cultivate audiences organically rather than presuming entitlement to funding absent demonstrated returns, contrasting with claims of systemic that ignore comparable hesitancy toward any nascent, low-draw venture. The resulting PWHL continues to operate with billionaire-backed losses, underscoring the 's short-term disruptions may have compounded long-term challenges by eroding incremental growth opportunities in divided ecosystems.

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