List of rivers of Myanmar

Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar, features a complex network of rivers that drain into the Indian Ocean and, to a lesser extent, the Andaman Sea and the Gulf of Thailand, shaping its diverse landscapes from mountainous highlands to coastal deltas. The country's hydrology is dominated by eight major river basins: Ayeyarwady, Thanlwin, Mekong, Bago, Sittaung, Bilin, Tanintharyi, and Rakhine, which collectively cover a total catchment area of approximately 737,800 km² and generate an annual surface runoff of 1,081.88 km³.^[1][2] These rivers are essential for agriculture, which accounts for 91% of water use, hydropower generation with a potential of over 100,000 MW (as estimated in 2023), inland navigation, and sustaining ecosystems rich in aquatic biodiversity, though only about 5% of water resources are currently utilized; as of 2025, installed hydropower capacity stands at approximately 3,200 MW amid ongoing development and environmental concerns.^[2][3] The Ayeyarwady (Irrawaddy) River, Myanmar's longest river entirely within its borders at 2,170 kilometers (1,348 miles), originates from the confluence of the N'mai and Mali rivers in the northern Kachin State near the Tibetan Plateau and flows southward through the central dry zone before forming a nine-armed delta in the Irrawaddy Delta region, emptying into the Andaman Sea.^[4] Its basin, with a catchment area of approximately 404,200 km² and an annual volume of about 455 km³ (including major tributaries like the Chindwin), supports over half of Myanmar's population through irrigation for rice cultivation, commercial transportation of goods like teak and jade, and fisheries with high biodiversity including approximately 194 endemic fish species, while also serving as a key waterway for hydroelectric development.^[2][5] Major tributaries such as the Chindwin (750 miles long, 1,207 km, with 141.29 km³ volume and 115,300 km² catchment), Myittha, Mu, and Zawgyi enhance its flow and economic utility.^[4][2] Transboundary rivers further define Myanmar's western and eastern hydrology. The Thanlwin (Salween) River, spanning 2,400 kilometers (1,491 miles) overall but with a 158,000 km² catchment in Myanmar contributing 257.92 km³ annually, originates in the Tibetan Plateau, forms part of the Myanmar-Thailand border, and supports 7 million people across its basin through fertile alluvial soils, 140 fish species, and teak forests, remaining largely free-flowing despite hydropower proposals.^[4][2] The Mekong River, the world's 12th longest at 4,350 kilometers (2,703 miles) and flowing through Myanmar for a 28,600 km² section with 17.63 km³ volume, sustains 60 million people regionally with high biodiversity and cultural significance, entering Myanmar from Laos and exiting to Thailand.^[4][2] Inland basins like the Sittoung (41.96 km³ volume, 48,100 km² catchment) and Bago (8.02 km³ volume, 5,300 km² catchment) provide critical local resources for agriculture and urban centers near Yangon, while coastal systems such as Bilin, Tanintharyi, and Rakhine drain smaller areas into the Andaman Sea and Bay of Bengal, contributing to mangrove ecosystems and fisheries.^[2]

Hydrological Overview

Physical Geography and Climate Influence

Myanmar's physical geography is characterized by a diverse topography that profoundly shapes its river systems. The northern region features rugged highlands extending from the Himalayan system, transitioning into the expansive central lowlands of the Ayeyarwady Valley. To the west, the Rakhine Yoma mountains form a barrier along the coast, while the eastern Shan Plateau rises as a highland mass, and the southern Tenasserim Hills extend toward the Thai border. This configuration of mountain ranges and lowlands creates distinct drainage patterns, with rivers channeled through valleys parallel to the prevailing north-south tectonic trends.^[6][7] The country's tropical monsoon climate exerts a dominant influence on its hydrology, with the southwest monsoon prevailing from May to October and delivering 80-90% of annual precipitation. Coastal and southern areas receive 2,500-5,500 mm of rainfall annually, while inland regions see less, leading to pronounced seasonal variations in river regimes. This intense wet season triggers widespread flooding across lowlands and deltas, elevating river levels dramatically and increasing sediment transport due to heavy runoff from deforested and cultivated slopes. The dry northeast monsoon from November to April contrasts sharply, reducing flows and concentrating water availability in the rainy period.^[8][9][10] Myanmar's rivers predominantly exhibit north-south flow directions, aligned parallel to the major mountain ranges that compartmentalize the landscape into separate basins. The extensive river network spans approximately 60% of the country's land area, reflecting the high drainage density in humid, tectonically active terrains. Major systems maintain high discharge rates, with average annual flows exceeding 10,000 m³/s, sustaining vital water volumes even during low-flow periods. For instance, basins like the Ayeyarwady and Thanlwin exemplify this parallel orientation, channeling water southward toward the Andaman Sea and Gulf of Martaban.^[11][12][13] Geologically, Myanmar's rivers originate primarily from the Tibetan Plateau and adjacent local highlands, where steep gradients and seismic activity accelerate erosion processes. The Ayeyarwady Basin alone encompasses about 414,000 km², capturing runoff from glaciated headwaters and monsoon-fed tributaries. Erosion rates in these systems can reach up to 1,000 tons/km²/year, driven by the combination of high relief, intense rainfall, and friable bedrock, resulting in substantial sediment loads that build coastal deltas over time.^[14][15]

Importance to Economy and Ecology

Myanmar's rivers play a pivotal role in the national economy, primarily through irrigation that supports rice production, the country's staple crop and a cornerstone of agricultural output. Approximately 70% of rural livelihoods depend on rice farming, with river systems providing essential water for irrigation in key deltas and basins, enabling multiple cropping seasons and contributing to food security for millions. Inland navigation, particularly along the Ayeyarwady River, facilitates transport over about 2,000 kilometers of waterways, supporting trade and connectivity in a nation where road infrastructure remains limited. The rivers also hold substantial hydropower potential, estimated at 40,000 megawatts, though only about 8% has been developed as of 2025, offering opportunities for energy generation amid growing demand.^[2] Fisheries in these riverine ecosystems yield approximately 1.5 million tons annually, providing vital protein and employment for over 3 million people, while contributing roughly 2% to GDP and 50% of animal protein consumption. Ecologically, Myanmar's rivers sustain the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot, one of the world's richest, harboring approximately 530 freshwater fish species and diverse aquatic life critical to regional endemism.^[16] Riverine wetlands and deltas, including mangrove forests spanning about 500,000 hectares, function as vital carbon sinks, sequestering significant amounts of CO2, and serve as natural buffers against flooding and erosion during monsoon seasons. These ecosystems support migratory species and maintain water quality, fostering resilience in a landscape vulnerable to climate variability. Rivers have been central to Myanmar's cultural and social fabric since ancient times, with the Pyu city-states flourishing along the Ayeyarwady River from the 2nd century BCE, establishing early urban centers reliant on riverine trade and agriculture. Today, riparian zones sustain around 40 million people, or two-thirds of the population, through fishing, farming, and transportation, yet these communities face acute vulnerabilities, as evidenced by Cyclone Nargis in 2008, which devastated the Ayeyarwady Delta and claimed 138,000 lives due to storm surges amplified by degraded mangroves. Current threats to these rivers include rapid deforestation, at a rate of about 300,000 hectares per year, which exacerbates soil erosion and sedimentation, diminishing river productivity and increasing flood risks. Proposed dams, such as the over 50 planned on the Thanlwin (Salween) River including its tributaries, pose risks to biodiversity by fragmenting habitats, altering downstream flows, and threatening migratory fish populations and livelihoods for ethnic communities.

Rivers by Drainage Basin

Ayeyarwady Basin

The Ayeyarwady Basin, Myanmar's largest hydrological system, encompasses the Ayeyarwady River—also known as the Irrawaddy—and its extensive network of tributaries, covering a vast area that dominates the country's central and northern landscapes. The main stem of the Ayeyarwady River stretches 2,170 km from its headwaters in the northern mountains to its outlet in the Andaman Sea, draining a basin of approximately 413,710 km² that represents over 60% of Myanmar's land area. This basin is characterized by diverse topography, including rugged northern highlands, fertile central plains, and a sprawling delta plain, making it a critical artery for water resources, agriculture, and transportation across the nation.^[17][17][18] Key tributaries contribute significantly to the basin's flow and sediment dynamics. The Chindwin River, the largest tributary at about 1,200 km long, originates in the Hukawng Valley and joins the Ayeyarwady near Mandalay after traversing western Myanmar's hilly terrain. The Shweli River (also called Myittha), extending roughly 630 km from its source in China's Yunnan Province, enters the main river north of Mandalay, adding transboundary waters rich in minerals. Further south, the Mu River, approximately 275 km in length, drains the central Dry Zone and merges with the Ayeyarwady near Myinmu, supporting irrigation in arid regions. In the delta, distributaries like the Pathein River (Bassein), spanning around 183 km, branch westward to facilitate navigation and rice cultivation in coastal lowlands.^{[19][20][21][22]} The basin divides into distinct sub-basins that reflect varying hydrological and geomorphic features. The Upper Ayeyarwady sub-basin features northern mountainous headwaters fed by Himalayan runoff, where steep gradients drive high-velocity flows and initial sediment pickup. The Lower Ayeyarwady sub-basin spans the central plains, characterized by meandering channels and floodplains that enable extensive alluvial deposition. The Chindwin sub-basin, to the west, includes tributaries like the Myitnge River, channeling waters through forested hills and contributing substantially to the overall sediment budget. These sub-basins collectively shape the basin's response to monsoonal rains, with the Chindwin often delivering the highest suspended loads during peak flows.^{[23][24][22][25]} Hydrologically, the Ayeyarwady Basin exhibits pronounced seasonal variability, with an average annual discharge of 13,000 m³/s at the delta apex, peaking during the southwest monsoon. The system transports around 250 million tons of sediment annually, primarily as washload, which sustains the formation and maintenance of a vast delta covering about 25,000 km² and featuring nine major outlets into the Andaman Sea. This sediment influx supports delta progradation but also poses challenges like channel avulsion during floods. Monsoon flooding can exacerbate delta erosion in vulnerable coastal zones.^{[26][21][27][18]} The basin underpins Myanmar's socioeconomic fabric, accommodating roughly 70% of the national population through fisheries, rice paddies, and inland navigation. Historically, it has served as a vital trade route since the 9th century, facilitating commerce along its navigable reaches and supporting ancient irrigation networks that bolstered early kingdoms. Today, it remains essential for transporting goods and powering hydroelectricity, though increasing pressures from population growth and upstream dams threaten its ecological balance.^[28][29][26]

Thanlwin Basin

The Thanlwin Basin, located in eastern Myanmar, forms a transboundary drainage system shared with China and Thailand, draining rugged mountainous terrain and supporting diverse ecosystems amid ongoing development pressures. The main artery, the Thanlwin River (internationally known as the Salween), originates on the Tibetan Plateau and extends approximately 2,800 km southward, with roughly 1,200 km coursing through Myanmar's Shan and Kayah states before reaching the Andaman Sea at the Gulf of Martaban near Mawlamyine. The basin spans 320,000 km² overall, with Myanmar encompassing about 42% of this area, characterized by narrow valleys and high-elevation plateaus that channel monsoon-driven flows.^[30][31] Hydrologically, the basin features steep gradients averaging 1-2 m/km in its gorge sections, fostering high flow velocities that limit sediment deposition and maintain a relatively clear waterway compared to neighboring systems. The Thanlwin's average annual discharge reaches about 6,700 m³/s, sustained by heavy seasonal rainfall exceeding 2,000 mm in lower reaches, though gorges upstream trap much of the eroded material, resulting in a low sediment load of around 40 million tons per year at the mouth. This dynamic contributes to the river's role as a vital corridor for biodiversity, including endemic fish species and migratory birds, while its underdevelopment relative to western basins underscores limited navigational use beyond local transport.^[32][33] Major tributaries enhance the basin's network, with the Moei (Thaungyin) River forming a 327 km border segment with Thailand and contributing significant cross-border flows, alongside Shan State streams like the Nam Pang originating near Inle Lake. In southern Myanmar, the Ataran River serves as a key lower tributary system, merging with the main stem after draining coastal lowlands, while the Gyaing and Yunzalin rivers add volume from eastern highlands; further south, the Pawn and Pilu rivers feed into the system, supporting localized agriculture and fisheries in Kayin State.^[31] As one of Asia's longest remaining free-flowing rivers, the Thanlwin faces threats from proposed hydropower projects, including seven mainstream dams like the contested Hat Gyi Dam, which ethnic communities in Karen and Shan states oppose due to potential ecological disruptions such as habitat fragmentation, altered fish migrations, and downstream flooding risks. As of 2025, the Hat Gyi Dam remains in pre-construction phase amid political instability and ongoing opposition.^[34] These developments, often led by Chinese firms, have sparked conflicts over resource rights and environmental integrity, highlighting the basin's geopolitical sensitivities. The Thanlwin parallels the Ayeyarwady River's path due to shared tectonic influences from the Indo-Burman ranges.^[35]

Sittaung Basin

The Sittaung River, the principal waterway of the Sittaung Basin, originates on the edge of the Shan Plateau in Mandalay Region and flows southward for approximately 420 km before draining into the Gulf of Martaban in the Andaman Sea.^[36] The basin covers an area of about 34,450 km², spanning parts of six administrative regions and states in east-central Myanmar, and supports a population of roughly 5.8 million people, or 10% of the country's total.^[37] This basin lies parallel to the larger Ayeyarwady Basin but is separated from it by the Pegu Yoma mountain range, resulting in a narrower and more topographically constrained drainage system.^[38] The Sittaung River receives inflows from 23 major tributaries, contributing to its variable hydrological regime dominated by monsoon seasonality. Notable among these is the Shwegyin River, a left-bank tributary in the lower reaches that joins approximately 15 km upstream from the main river's confluence points and plays a role in local flood dynamics.^[39] Average annual discharge is around 1,000 m³/s, with seasonal peaks reaching up to 3,000 m³/s during the monsoon from July to September, driven by heavy rainfall ranging from 889 mm in the north to over 3,000 mm in the south.^[40] Low flows drop to about 500 m³/s in the dry season, reflecting the basin's reliance on a 6–7 month rainy period for water supply.^[41] The river supports limited navigation, accessible for about 40 km year-round and up to 90 km during the rainy season, primarily for timber floating from upstream forests. In the Bago Division, the basin is vital for agriculture, irrigating fields for around 70,000 people across 28 villages and enabling single-crop cultivation with potential for expansion through better water management.^[36] Small-scale gold mining along its banks also contributes to the local economy but introduces water quality challenges from sedimentation and pollutants.^[36] The basin's steep gradients and intense monsoon rains make it particularly prone to flash floods, exacerbating risks in downstream areas near Taungoo and Madauk.^[42] Overall, the Sittaung's role in irrigation aligns with broader patterns in Myanmar's river systems, sustaining rice production amid climate variability.^[40]

Rakhine Basin

The Rakhine Basin comprises a network of coastal rivers draining the western slopes of the Rakhine Yoma mountains in Rakhine State, Myanmar, emptying directly into the Bay of Bengal over a narrow coastal strip. These rivers are characterized by short, steep gradients due to the mountains' proximity to the shoreline, resulting in fast-flowing streams with complex estuaries and high sediment transport. The basin spans approximately 30,000 km², supporting diverse ecosystems including broadleaf forests and mangroves, though detailed surveys remain limited. High annual rainfall, often exceeding 5,000 mm during the southwest monsoon from May to October, drives intense erosion and seasonal variability in river flows. This coastal location also exposes the basin to frequent cyclones, which amplify flooding and sediment deposition along the shore.^[43][44][45] The rivers in the Rakhine Basin are predominantly rain-fed, with lengths typically ranging from 50 to 300 km, reflecting the compact geography between the highlands and the sea. They drain a mix of lithologies, including Neogene and Paleogene sedimentary rocks, ophiolites, and metamorphic formations, contributing sediments to the adjacent Western Myanmar Shelf. Transboundary elements add complexity, as some rivers originate or border neighboring countries, influencing regional water management and ecology. Biodiversity is notably high, with the basin hosting significant mollusc (136 species), odonata (111 species), and aquatic plant (125 species) diversity, underscoring its ecological value despite pressures from rural activities and natural hazards.^[43][44] Smaller tributaries, such as the An River near Sittwe and the Dalet River, further fragment the basin's hydrology, feeding into the larger systems and enhancing estuarine habitats. These waterways are crucial for Rakhine State's economy and ecology, sustaining fisheries that involve a high proportion of landless rural households and irrigating rice paddies in alluvial lowlands. The Kaladan River holds strategic importance as the core of the India-Myanmar Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project, featuring a 158 km inland waterway from Sittwe Port to Paletwa, designed to enhance trade links between India's northeast and Myanmar's coast. Monsoon-driven heavy rains often trigger coastal flooding, affecting settlements and agricultural productivity in the basin.^[43][46][45]

Tanintharyi Basin

The Tanintharyi Basin encompasses the southern coastal river systems of Myanmar's Tanintharyi Region, draining an area of approximately 18,000 km² through the hilly rainforests of the Tenasserim Hills toward the Andaman Sea.^[47] These rivers originate in the border ranges shared with Thailand, characterized by steep gradients and seasonal monsoon flows that result in variable annual discharges, estimated at around 3,928 Mm³ for the primary systems.^[48] The basin's hydrology supports extensive mangrove estuaries along the coast, vital for sediment deposition and coastal protection amid fluctuating water volumes influenced by heavy rainfall exceeding 3,000 mm annually in upland areas.^[43] The principal river in the basin is the Tanintharyi River, also known as the Great Tenasserim River, which stretches 475 km from its headwaters in the Tenasserim Hills to its delta near Myeik, serving as a key waterway for local navigation and fisheries.^[47] Other major tributaries include the Dawei River (also called Tavoy River), measuring 149 km and flowing through the urban center of Dawei before entering the Andaman Sea; the Pakchan River, approximately 240 km long, which forms a significant portion of the natural border with Thailand along its course from the hills to the coastal estuary; the Lenya River, 154 km in length, draining southeastern slopes into the sea south of Dawei; and the Palaw River, a shorter system associated with the Great Tenasserim that channels waters from western hill slopes near the border.^[47][49] These rivers collectively sustain riparian ecosystems in a region of dense tropical forests, with flows modulated by the monsoon cycle that peaks from May to October. Smaller sub-rivers and coastal streams, such as the Thamaga and Haungkharaw, along with several unnamed waterways ranging 100-180 km, contribute to the basin's network by eroding granitic and metamorphic terrains and feeding into the main channels.^[47] These tributaries enhance the basin's dendritic drainage pattern, promoting biodiversity through diverse habitats from upland streams to lowland wetlands. The Tanintharyi Basin stands out as a biodiversity hotspot, harboring rare species such as the Indochinese tiger and various endemic fish and bird populations amid its rainforests and mangroves, though these ecosystems face severe threats from illegal logging, which has deforested significant mangrove areas, and unregulated mining operations that contaminate waterways with sediments and chemicals.^[50][51] The Pakchan River's role in delineating the Myanmar-Thailand border underscores geopolitical sensitivities, exacerbating vulnerabilities to cross-border resource extraction.^[52] These pressures highlight the basin's integration into broader wetland systems essential for regional ecological resilience.^[53]

Mekong Basin

The Mekong River, spanning a total length of approximately 4,350 km across six countries, enters Myanmar in its upper reaches, where it forms a brief international border segment primarily with Laos. In Myanmar, the river traces about 235 km along this border, beginning near the tripoint with China and extending southward to the tripoint with Thailand, before continuing into Laos. This portion lies within the rugged terrain of Shan State in eastern Myanmar, contributing a modest basin area of 24,000 km², or roughly 3% of the overall Mekong Basin.^{[54][55][56][57]} Tributaries in the Myanmar segment are limited due to the steep, forested highlands, with small streams draining from Shan State directly into the Mekong. Notable among these is the partial catchment of the Nam Ou River, which originates upstream and influences flows near the China-Myanmar-Laos tripoint, alongside minor inflows like those from the Nam Khan system on the adjacent Laotian side. Further south, the Ruak River serves as a key tributary, forming the Myanmar-Thailand border for approximately 140 km before joining the Mekong, while streams such as the Nam Leuk contribute indirectly through interconnected watersheds. These tributaries support localized hydrology but add only marginally to the river's volume in this reach.^[54][58] Hydrologically, the Myanmar portion features high-velocity flows through narrow gorges and mountainous channels, driven by the region's elevation drop and monsoon rains, though it contributes minimally to the basin-wide mean annual discharge of 475 km³ (about 13,000 m³/s). Myanmar's segment accounts for roughly 17.6 km³ of annual flow, underscoring its peripheral role in the overall system. This area forms the famed Golden Triangle at the confluence of the Mekong, Ruak, and Kok rivers, a historic juncture supporting diverse ethnic hill tribes such as the Shan and Akha through subsistence fishing and agriculture. Development remains constrained by the precipitous terrain and remote location, limiting large-scale infrastructure while preserving ecological sensitivity.^[54][55][56]

Bago Basin

The Bago River, the principal waterway of the Bago Basin, originates in the southern Pegu Yoma mountain range at an elevation of approximately 800 meters above sea level and flows southward for about 331 kilometers, draining a catchment area of roughly 5,359 square kilometers.^[59] This relatively compact basin lies in the south-central part of Myanmar, primarily within Bago Region, and supports a mix of agricultural and urban landscapes influenced by the tropical monsoon climate. The river's path traverses hilly terrain before entering lowland plains, where it meanders through Bago city, facilitating local navigation and serving as a vital artery for irrigation in rice paddies and vegetable farms along its banks.^[60][61] The Bago River receives inflows from several small mountain streams originating in the Pegu Yoma, though its tributary network remains underdeveloped compared to larger Myanmar river systems. These minor feeders contribute to the river's seasonal flow variations, with peak discharges during the monsoon season from June to October. As it approaches the coastal lowlands, the Bago River joins the Yangon River south of downtown Yangon, integrating into the broader deltaic ecosystem that sustains mangrove habitats and fisheries.^[60][61] Hydrologically, the basin is highly susceptible to flooding due to intense rainfall and limited natural drainage, as evidenced by the 2019 monsoon floods that affected over 231,000 people across impacted regions including Bago, displacing thousands and damaging infrastructure. The river also plays a key role in transportation, with ferries and small vessels using its navigable stretches to connect rural areas to urban markets.^[62] Historically, the Bago River has been central to the region's cultural and political development, particularly as the lifeline of Bago city—formerly known as Hanthawaddy—the capital of the powerful Mon kingdom of the same name from the 13th to 16th centuries, which controlled much of lower Myanmar through trade and Theravada Buddhist scholarship.^[63] In modern times, urban expansion in Bago Division has introduced environmental challenges, including pollution from municipal wastewater and runoff carrying macroplastics and sediments into the river, with studies identifying Bago city as a primary source of plastic debris that accumulates during high flows.^[59] Efforts to mitigate these issues include community-led waste management, though ongoing urbanization continues to strain the basin's water quality.^[64]

Bilin Basin

The Bilin Basin encompasses a compact drainage area of approximately 4,178 km² in eastern Myanmar, primarily within Mon State and parts of Kayin State and Bago Region. The principal waterway, the Bilin River, stretches 212 km from its headwaters in the hilly terrain near Hpapon Township in Kayin State, flowing southward through townships including Shwegyin, Kyaikto, Bilin, and Thaton before discharging into the Gulf of Martaban near Mottama. This river system forms a vital eastern coastal drainage network, distinct from larger basins to the north and west. The Bilin River is fed by 22 small tributaries, mainly short streams originating from the Thaton Hills and adjacent uplands in Mon State, which channel monsoon runoff into the main stem. At its estuary, the river splits into three distributaries, creating a braided network that enhances sediment deposition and wetland formation. These hydrological features result in pronounced seasonal variability, with monsoon peaks driving high silt loads that build up mud flats and promote estuarine dynamics. Tidal influences from the Gulf of Martaban extend up to 40 km inland, with ranges reaching 6-7 meters, fostering expansive tidal wetlands characterized by intertidal zones, meandering channels, and saline mud flats akin to those in the lower Sittaung River reaches. These wetlands, covering diverse types such as estuarine and paludal systems, have shown expansion—for instance, one intertidal zone grew from 48 km² in 1990 to nearly 198 km² by 2015—due to ongoing sedimentation and climatic factors. Monsoon-driven flooding exacerbates siltation and saline intrusion, as evidenced by the 2018 floods when river levels rose 2.6 feet above danger marks in Bilin Township, displacing thousands and leading to enhanced flood monitoring programs thereafter. In Mon State, the Bilin Basin underpins local fisheries through its wetland habitats supporting freshwater and brackish species, while integrated rice-fish farming practices utilize the fertile gley and swampy soils for dual-crop systems that boost food security and rural incomes. Rice cultivation, dominant on over 1,100 km² of alluvial plains, relies on the river's seasonal inundation for irrigation, contributing significantly to regional agricultural output.