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Polyperchon (sometimes written Polysperchon; Greek: Πολυπέρχων; b. between 390–380 BC[1][2] – d. after 304 BC,[3] possibly into 3rd century BC),[4] was a Macedonian Greek general who served both Philip II and Alexander the Great and then played an active role in the ensuing battles for control between Alexander's generals.

Early career

[edit]

Polyperchon was born between 390 and 380 BC. His father, Simmias, belonged to the local aristocracy from Tymphaia in Upper Macedonia, which was located in the valley of the Aliakmon River on the border with Thessaly and was a descendant of the royal dynasty of the local kings. Polyperchon also had a brother, Andromenes, whose sons: Amyntas, Simmias, Attalus, and Polemon became commanders in the army of Alexander the Great. Claudius Aelian reports a rumor that in his youth Polyperchon was a bandit. However, this fragment is found among twenty others, which in most cases are unreliable claims about the origins and early years of well-known figures of antiquity.

He served under Philip II and Alexander the Great, accompanying Alexander throughout his long journeys. After the Battle of Issus in 333 BC, Polyperchon was appointed commander of the battalion (taxis) of the Macedonian phalanx, replacing Ptolemy, who had fallen in battle.[5][6] He continued to lead this unit throughout Alexander’s campaigns, including the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC, where he was positioned in the center between the taxeis of Meleager and Amyntas.[7]

In 331/330, Polyperchon participated in the crossing of the Araxes River alongside Amyntas, Coenus, and the cavalry of Philotas, while Alexander advanced against Ariobarzanes.[8] In 328, he was left in Bactria to help prevent rebellion in the region.[9] Quintus Curtius Rufus records an incident from 327 in which Polyperchon mocked a Persian who performed proskynesis, a ceremonial act of bowing and kissing the foot, which angered Alexander and led to Polyperchon being thrown from his couch; however, modern scholars reject the account as apocryphal, and Polyperchon likely was not present at court at the time.[10][6]

Early in the Indian campaign, he was left in Andaca with Craterus to subdue resistant provinces and destroy rebellious cities.[11] He later rejoined the main army in Arigaeum and took part in the campaigns against the Massagetae and the Assacenians.[12] At the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC, Polyperchon was left behind with Alcetas and Craterus to guard the base camp and was instructed not to cross the river until Porus had been defeated or abandoned the opposite bank.[13]

In August 324 BC, Alexander the Great ordered Craterus to lead a contingent of 10,000 veterans back to Macedon.[14] Craterus was to replace Antipater as regent of the Macedonian kingdom in Europe, while Antipater was instructed to bring fresh troops to join Alexander in the East. Polyperchon was appointed as Craterus’s deputy, a decision that, according to Arrian, was due to Craterus’s declining health.[15][16] Should anything happen to Craterus, Polyperchon was designated to assume his responsibilities. Their journey progressed slowly, and by the time of Alexander’s death in June 323 BC, both Craterus and Polyperchon were still in Cilicia.[17]

First War of the Diadochi

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See also: Wars of the Diadochi

The death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC upended the plans of Craterus and the Macedonian high command.[6] A major Greek uprising, later known as the Lamian War, broke out almost immediately. Antipater, left in charge in Macedon, suffered a defeat at the Battle of Thermopylae and was besieged in the city of Lamia. He urgently appealed for reinforcements from Craterus, then still in Cilicia, and from Leonnatus, satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia.[18]

Craterus eventually marched west with a force of 10,000 infantry, 1,000 Persian archers and slingers, and 1,500 cavalry. His arrival proved decisive and shifted the balance of the war. Although Craterus held senior rank, he voluntarily deferred command to Antipater during the campaign.[19][20] Following the end of the Lamian War, the two commanders launched a new expedition against the Aetolian League. Despite initial successes, the campaign was abruptly abandoned when news arrived that Perdiccas, the imperial regent in Asia, had declared war on Antipater. In response, a Macedonian war council agreed to make peace with the Aetolians in order to turn their focus eastward.[21]

During this period, Polyperchon remained in Macedon, acting as governor in the absence of Antipater and Craterus.[22] When the two senior commanders crossed into Asia to confront Perdiccas’s forces, Polyperchon was formally entrusted with authority over Greece and Macedon.[23]

Meanwhile, the Aetolians, now allied with Perdiccas, launched another incursion into Thessaly, hoping to draw Antipater back from his campaign in Asia. Their general, Alexander of Aetolia, captured several cities, besieged the key town of Amphissa in Locris, and routed a Macedonian force under Polycles. Reinforced by local Thessalian allies, his army grew significantly in strength. However, a counter-invasion of Aetolia by Acarnanian forces forced the Aetolians to withdraw. They left behind a rearguard under Menon of Pharsalus to hold their gains in Thessaly. Soon after, Polyperchon entered Thessaly with a large army and crushed Menon’s force in battle. Menon was killed during the fighting, marking a major Macedonian victory.

The First War of the Diadochi ended in 321 BC with the death of Perdiccas and the triumph of Antipater, who was confirmed as regent at the Partition of Triparadisus. Polyperchon remained at Antipater’s side for the next several years.

Regent

[edit]

In 319 BC, shortly before his death, the aging Antipater appointed Polyperchon as regent of the Macedonian Empire and named his own son Cassander chiliarch (chief of staff), making him second in command.[24] The decision came as a shock to Cassander, who had expected to be named his father's successor. Although Antipater had entrusted him with important responsibilities during his lifetime, including representing him at the court of Alexander and commanding forces in the Greek mainland, he was passed over in favor of the more experienced and senior Polyperchon.[25]

The appointment immediately provoked tension between the two men. Cassander refused to accept the arrangement and began rallying political and military support. Many within the Macedonian aristocracy, as well as powerful satraps in the eastern provinces, saw Cassander as a more favorable figure, both due to his lineage and due to suspicion of Polyperchon’s intentions to restore traditional monarchical authority. Within months, open hostility broke out between the rival camps, marking the beginning of a new phase in the Wars of the Diadochi. Polyperchon aligned himself with Eumenes against Cassander, Antigonus and Ptolemy.[26]

Although Polyperchon was initially successful in securing control of the Greek cities, whose freedom he proclaimed, he suffered a major setback at Megalopolis in 317 BC. A few months later, his fleet was destroyed by Antigonus, and Cassander seized control of Athens in 316. a few months later his fleet was destroyed by Antigonus, and Cassander secured control of Athens the following year. Shortly thereafter, Polyperchon was driven from Macedon by Cassander, who took control of the disabled King Philip Arrhidaeus and his wife Eurydice.

Polyperchon fled to Epirus, where he joined Alexander's mother Olympias, widow Roxana, and infant son Alexander IV. He formed an alliance with Olympias and King Aeacides of Epirus, and Olympias led an army into Macedon. She was initially successful, defeating and capturing the army of King Philip, whom she had murdered, but soon Cassander returned from the Peloponnesus and captured and murdered her in 316, taking Roxana and the boy king into his custody.

Regency in exile

[edit]

After his defeat in the north, Polyperchon withdrew to the Peloponnesus, where he retained control over several strongholds, including Corinth and Sicyon. There, he formed an alliance with Antigonus, who had by then broken with his former allies. Polyperchon surrendered the regency to Antigonus and was entrusted with command in southern Greece. By 314 BC, his son Alexander had been appointed strategos (military governor) of the Peloponnese by Cassander as part of a formal agreement, that placed all of Cassander’s Peloponnesian holdings under Alexander’s command, including cities previously held by Cassander’s garrisons.[27] This allowed Alexander to exercise authority across nearly the entire peninsula. Polyperchon, now advanced in age, had likely stepped aside due to his unwillingness to subordinate himself to the much younger Cassander and had handed command to his son.[27]

However, Alexander’s assassination at Sicyon by a local named Alexion destabilized the arrangement. Cassander excluded Polyperchon from the peace settlement with Antigonus in 311 BC (as recorded in Antigonus’s letter to the people of Scepsis). When war again broke out between Antigonus and the others, Antigonus sent Heracles, the reputed illegitimate son of Alexander the Great by Barsine, to Polyperchon as a bargaining chip to use against Cassander. Polyperchon retaliated against Cassander by promoting Heracles as the rightful heir to the throne.

Reconciliation with Cassander

[edit]

Although Polyperchon initially supported Heracles as a challenger to Cassander’s rule, he soon changed course. Likely recognizing the diminishing prospects of restoring the Argead dynasty through Heracles and seeking to preserve his own power and holdings, Polyperchon murdered the boy in 309 BC. This act paved the way for a political settlement with Cassander, removing the primary obstacle that had prevented reconciliation between the two men.[27]

As part of the new agreement, Cassander agreed to formally recognize Polyperchon not only as strategos of the Peloponnese but also as a co-ruler with equal authority.[28] The treaty also restored to Polyperchon his Macedonian estates, which had likely been granted to him in an earlier settlement but forfeited after his rebellion.[29] This recognition effectively marked the end of Polyperchon’s decades-long struggle for control in the post-Alexandrian world.

Later life

[edit]

In the spring of 308 BC, Ptolemy arrived in Greece and began to seize cities in the Peloponnese. In his absence, Polyperchon’s daughter-in-law, Cratesipolis, widow of his son Alexander, was commanding in the region, but she judged her position untenable and surrendered her fortresses. This left Polyperchon without any territorial base. However, a new agreement between Cassander and Ptolemy allowed Polyperchon an opportunity to re-enter the Peloponnese. According to Plutarch, he may have already regained control of the area around Patrae by the summer of 307 BC.[30][31] Over the following years, Polyperchon managed to reconquer much of the Peloponnese.[31]

Beloch asserts that by 304 BC, Polyperchon held sway over nearly the entire peninsula, with the exceptions of Corinth, Sicyon, and Sparta.[31] Diodorus Siculus explicitly mentions several cities under his control at this time, including Bura and Skyros in Achaea, and Orchomenos in Arcadia.[32] The loyalty of Argos and the cities of the Argolid, namely Epidaurus, Troezen, and Hermione, is uncertain, but Beloch interpreted Plutarch’s phrasing as evidence that at least a significant portion of these cities had come under Polyperchon’s control during this period.[31][33] He further argued that the pattern of reconquests between 307 and 304 BC indicates a deliberate and largely successful campaign to re-establish Polyperchon's authority across the Peloponnese.[31]

However, this resurgence proved to be short-lived. In 303 BC, Demetrius Poliorcetes launched a campaign in Greece and quickly reversed many of Polyperchon’s gains.[34] He captured Argos, Achaea, Elis, and most of Arcadia, leaving Polyperchon in control only of a few remaining cities, including Messenia and Mantineia.[33][34][35] After this point, he disappears from the historical record, but the lack of further reference is only because Diodorus Siculus's subsequent narrative is lost and no others cover this period in sufficient detail. A mention in Plutarch's Life of Pyrrhus 8.3 suggests that Polyperchon might have lived into the early 3rd century BC.[4] It is possible that Demetrius’ campaign against Messene in the year 295 was also directed against him.[34][36]

Diodorus had previously referred to Polyperchon as “almost the oldest among Alexander’s companions-in-arms” in 319 BC, suggesting he was already elderly at the time of his appointment as regent.[37] Polyperchon was likely in his eighties by 303 BC.[34]

Notes

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References

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Polyperchon

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Polyperchon (Greek: Πολυπέρχων; c. 394 – c. 303 BC) was a Macedonian general of noble birth who served as an officer under kings Philip II (Greek: Φίλιππος Βʹ) and Alexander the Great (Greek: Αλέξανδρος ὁ Μέγας) before emerging as a key figure in the Wars of the Diadochi as regent for the young Alexander IV and Philip III Arrhidaeus.[1] Born in the district of Tymphaea to the nobleman Simmias, Polyperchon commanded the Tymphaean phalanx brigade during Alexander's campaigns, participating in decisive victories such as the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC and later serving under Craterus in the Indian subcontinent around 326 BC.[1] Following Alexander's death in 323 BC, he aligned with the regent Antipater, escorting veteran troops back to Macedonia in 324 BC and contributing to the suppression of the Lamian War, including the victory at Crannon in 322 BC.[1] In 319 BC, on Antipater's deathbed, Polyperchon was unexpectedly appointed as the new regent over the Macedonian kingdom and its royal wards, bypassing Antipater's son Cassander and igniting the Second War of the Diadochi.[1][2] To counter Cassander's rebellion, Polyperchon issued decrees restoring autonomy to Greek city-states, allied with the eastern satrap Eumenes to secure royal treasuries, and sought support from Olympias, mother of Alexander IV, leading to an invasion of Macedonia in 317 BC that resulted in the execution of Philip III by Olympias' forces.[2] Despite initial successes, Polyperchon's naval efforts faltered against Antigonus in the Aegean, and Cassander's siege of Olympias at Pydna in 316 BC marked the collapse of his regency; Olympias was captured and executed, forcing Polyperchon to flee while Cassander consolidated control over Macedonia.[2] Retreating to the Peloponnese, Polyperchon maintained influence there into the 300s BC, briefly allying with Cassander in 309 BC—during which he orchestrated the murder of the rival claimant Heracles, Alexander's illegitimate son—to eliminate threats, though this act underscored the ruthless power struggles among the successors.[1] He remained active until at least 304 BC, outliving many contemporaries into his nineties, but ultimately faded from prominence as the Diadochi carved up Alexander's empire into nascent Hellenistic kingdoms.[1] Polyperchon's tenure highlighted the tensions between Alexander's old Macedonian guard and ambitious younger generals, contributing to the fragmentation of the Argead dynasty without achieving lasting territorial gains.[1]

Origins and Early Career

Family Background and Early Life

Polyperchon was a Macedonian of noble birth from the district of Tymphaea in Upper Macedonia, a rugged highland region in the valley of the upper Haliacmon River near the Pindus Mountains.[1] His father, Simmias, belonged to the local aristocracy, which positioned Polyperchon within the traditional Macedonian elite that supplied many of the kingdom's military leaders.[1][3] Scholars estimate his birth between approximately 394 and 380 BCE, based on his advanced age during the early Diadochi conflicts; in 319 BCE, the historian Diodorus Siculus described him as "almost the oldest among Alexander's companions-in-arms," indicating he was likely in his sixties or older by then.[3] Little is recorded of his youth, but as a member of the Tymphaean nobility, he would have received training in horsemanship, warfare, and the martial customs central to Macedonian aristocratic upbringing, preparing him for service in the royal army.[1]

Service under Philip II and Alexander the Great

Polyperchon, a Macedonian of Tymphaean origin born circa 394 BCE, began his military career serving under Philip II, participating in the Macedonian army's campaigns that unified Greece and prepared for the invasion of Asia.[1] Detailed accounts of his specific contributions under Philip remain undocumented in extant ancient sources, though as an older officer he likely held a junior command in the phalanx during Philip's reforms and victories such as Chaeronea, reflecting the standard progression for Macedonian nobles in the royal forces.[1] When Alexander the Great launched his Asian expedition in 334 BCE, Polyperchon joined as an officer commanding the Tymphaean brigade of the infantry phalanx. Following the Battle of Issus in 333 BCE, where Macedonian forces defeated Darius III, Polyperchon was promoted to lead one of the phalanx battalions, a position confirmed in Arrian's account of Alexander's reorganizations.[4] During the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BCE, Polyperchon advocated for Parmenion's strategic proposal of a night assault on the Persian encampment, highlighting his tactical conservatism amid debates in Alexander's council, as noted by Quintus Curtius Rufus.[5] Later, in the Indian campaigns of 326 BCE, Polyperchon received his first recorded independent command in Gandara, where he captured the fortified town of Ora in the Swat Valley after a siege, according to Curtius Rufus, though Arrian attributes similar actions in the region to Alexander or subordinates like Alcetas.[6] These exploits underscored Polyperchon's reliability as a veteran commander in Alexander's veteran-heavy phalanx, positioning him among the senior officers by the expedition's later phases.[1]

Role in the Initial Wars of the Diadochi

Aftermath of Perdiccas' Death

Following Perdiccas' assassination in the summer of 321 BC by mutinous officers—including Seleucus, Peithon, and Antigenes—during a failed attempt to cross the Nile against Ptolemy in Egypt, the Argyraspides (Silver Shields) phalanx under Antigenes assumed temporary control of the royal army and elected Peithon and Antigenes as interim guardians of the kings Philip III Arrhidaeus and Alexander IV.[7] These officers dispatched envoys to Antipater in Macedonia and Craterus in Cilicia, inviting them to take supreme command amid the army's disorder and executions of Perdiccas' adherents, such as the somaophylax Antigenes' rival supporters.[7] Craterus, en route, perished in battle against Eumenes near Orcynii in Cappadocia, leaving Antipater to arrive unopposed in Triparadisus (modern Tell Rifaat, Syria) with reinforcements.[7] Antipater swiftly reasserted authority over the fractious forces, executing thirty ringleaders of the recent discord and purging remaining Perdiccas loyalists to restore discipline.[7] At the subsequent Partition of Triparadisus, he assumed the regency (epitropos) alongside the kings, confirmed Ptolemy's hold on Egypt, awarded Seleucus satrapy of Babylonia (with 100 talents and 1,000 talents' worth of elephants to recover it), and reassigned other provinces—such as Antigonus to Asia Minor, Lysimachus to Thrace, and Peithon to Media—to loyalists while dissolving unstable appointments.[7] Antipater then led the bulk of the royal army—approximately 43,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry—back to Macedonia to consolidate European holdings, leaving garrisons and subordinates to enforce the settlement in Asia.[7] In Macedonia, Polyperchon, a veteran general loyal to Antipater from the Lamian War, commanded significant forces and focused on quelling peripheral threats amid the regency transition.[8] He advanced into Thessaly with a substantial army to counter Aetolian incursions, decisively defeating their forces under the general Menon, slaying him in combat, and reclaiming the territory to secure Antipater's northern flank.[8] This campaign underscored Polyperchon's reliability in maintaining stability during the power vacuum, positioning him as a key subordinate as Antipater prioritized the Argead dynasty's guardianship over personal ambition.[8] The settlement temporarily halted overt Diadochi conflicts, though underlying rivalries persisted, with Eumenes inheriting Perdiccas' eastern commands and Antigonus maneuvering for autonomy.[7]

Position under Antipater

Following the conclusion of the Lamian War in 322 BC, where Polyperchon had supported Antipater and Craterus (Greek: Κράτερος) in defeating the Greek coalition at the Battle of Crannon on September 5, Polyperchon emerged as a key military subordinate during the early Wars of the Diadochi.[1] His forces contributed to restoring Macedonian control over Thessaly and central Greece, solidifying Antipater's authority as viceroy of Macedonia and Europe.[3] In 321 BC, as Antipater joined Craterus in the campaign against Perdiccas, he entrusted Polyperchon with the defense of Macedonia and Hellas amid lingering unrest from Aetolian and Thessalian rebels. Polyperchon successfully suppressed a Thessalian uprising, decisively defeating their forces and killing the leader Menon of Pharsalus, thereby maintaining stability in the core territories during Antipater's absence in Asia.[9] Following Craterus' death in the same year and the Partition of Triparadisus in summer 320 BC—which elevated Antipater to regent of the empire—Polyperchon was left in effective command of Macedonia proper, overseeing administrative and military affairs while Antipater consolidated power in the east.[1] Polyperchon's reliability in these roles marked him as Antipater's most trusted senior general after Craterus, reflecting his status as a veteran officer from Alexander's campaigns who prioritized Macedonian unity over personal ambition. This position of delegated authority underscored Antipater's strategy of distributing responsibilities among loyal subordinates to secure the regency's European flank against both internal dissent and external threats from rival Diadochi.[1]

Regency and Power Struggles

Appointment as Successor to Antipater

In 319 BC, Antipater, the regent of the Macedonian kingdom, appointed Polyperchon as his successor on his deathbed, designating him as guardian (epitropos) of the kings—Philip III Arrhidaeus and the infant Alexander IV—and as supreme commander (strategos) of the empire's forces.[4] Polyperchon, son of Simmias and a veteran general who had served under Philip II and Alexander the Great, was selected for his advanced age and distinguished status among Antipater's officers, qualities that positioned him as a stabilizing figure amid the fractious Diadochi.[4] [1] Antipater simultaneously named his own son, Cassander, as chiliarch, or second-in-command, a role intended to subordinate Cassander to Polyperchon's authority and mitigate potential ambitions that Antipater perceived in his son, whom he viewed as relatively inexperienced for sole regency despite Cassander's administrative capabilities.[4] [10] This arrangement reflected Antipater's strategic calculus to preserve unity in Macedonia by favoring a seasoned, less dynastically aggressive successor over immediate familial succession, drawing on Polyperchon's loyalty demonstrated during the Lamian War (322–321 BC) and his command of European forces under Antipater.[1] [3] The appointment, reported primarily in Diodorus Siculus' Library of History (Book 18.48), underscored Antipater's emphasis on military seniority and imperial guardianship over personal lineage, though it immediately sowed discord among the Successors, as Cassander rejected the subordination and sought alliances elsewhere.[4] Polyperchon's investiture thus formalized his control over the royal army and Macedonian heartland, granting him nominal oversight of the Argead dynasty's remnants until Cassander's subsequent challenge in late 319 BC.[11]

Alliance with Olympias and Declaration of Regency

Following Antipater's death in early 319 BC, Polyperchon, as the newly appointed regent and supreme commander of the Argead kings Philip III Arrhidaeus and Alexander IV, faced immediate opposition from Cassander, Antipater's son, who rejected the succession and sought alliances abroad to challenge his authority.[12] To bolster his legitimacy, particularly over the young Alexander IV, Polyperchon dispatched envoys to Olympias in Epirus, proposing that she return to Macedonia to assume guardianship of her grandson and oversight of the royal palace, thereby associating the Argead maternal line with his administration.[4] Olympias, wary of entanglement after years of exile under Antipater's influence, initially declined the invitation, remaining in Epirus amid Cassander's growing momentum, including his alliances with Ptolemy in Egypt and Antigonus in Asia.[1] By late 318 BC, however, as Cassander advanced into Macedonia and secured support from Eurydice, Philip III's wife, Polyperchon renewed his overtures; Olympias then agreed to the alliance, viewing it as essential to safeguard Alexander IV against Cassander's usurpation.[13] This pact extended to King Aeacides of Epirus, Olympias' kinsman, providing military reinforcement from Epirote forces. In declaring the alliance publicly, Polyperchon emphasized Olympias' role in protecting the royal heirs, framing it as a restoration of Argead authority against Cassander's "tyranny," while retaining military command himself; this effectively positioned Olympias as de facto regent over the palace and child king, though formal regency remained vested in Polyperchon per Antipater's designation.[4] The coalition's joint proclamation also appointed Eumenes as commander of Asian forces loyal to the kings, signaling a broader strategy to unify opposition to Cassander across the empire.[11] This arrangement, rooted in Olympias' symbolic prestige as Alexander the Great's mother, aimed to rally Macedonian traditionalists but exposed internal vulnerabilities, as Olympias' reputed ruthlessness alienated potential supporters.[14]

Military Campaigns against Cassander

In the wake of Antipater's death in 319 BC, Polyperchon, as newly appointed regent, faced immediate military challenges from Cassander, who rejected his authority and began consolidating power in Thessaly and central Greece while forging alliances with Antigonus, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus.[1] Polyperchon retained control over Macedonia and much of the Peloponnese initially, dispatching forces to secure Corinth and other key cities, but Cassander countered by advancing on Athens in 318 BC, installing an oligarchic regime under Demetrius of Phaleron after a negotiated settlement rather than assault.[4] That same year, Polyperchon launched a siege against Megalopolis in Arcadia, a stronghold loyal to Cassander, employing siege engines and infantry assaults, but abandoned the effort after months of resistance from the defenders, who received covert aid from Cassander's allies.[4] Naval operations intensified the conflict, with Polyperchon's fleet, intended to project power across the Aegean and support land campaigns, suffering a decisive defeat in late 318 BC near the Hellespont; Cassander's admiral Nicanor, bolstered by Antigonus's reinforcements, overwhelmed it in a two-day engagement, crippling Polyperchon's maritime capabilities and allowing Cassander to dominate sea lanes.[11] To undermine Cassander's influence in Macedonia, where Eurydice actively promoted him as regent over Philip III Arrhidaeus, Polyperchon allied with Olympias in mid-317 BC, inviting her from Epirus with promises of restoring Argead legitimacy; their combined forces, including Thessalian cavalry and Macedonian phalangites, invaded Macedonia in October 317 BC, routing Eurydice's army at the border and capturing Philip and Eurydice without significant casualties.[1] Olympias then seized Pydna, securing Roxane and the young Alexander IV, while ordering Eurydice's execution by stoning and imprisoning Philip.[15] Cassander responded by marching south from campaigns against northern tribes, initiating a blockade of Pydna in spring 316 BC with an army estimated at over 30,000, encircling the city and starving out the defenders amid harsh winter conditions.[11] Polyperchon attempted a relief expedition with his remaining field army but faltered as troops succumbed to plague, desertion, and bribery orchestrated by Cassander's general Callas, who infiltrated and corrupted key units; unable to break the siege, Polyperchon withdrew to Aetolia, abandoning Olympias to surrender on terms that Cassander swiftly violated by executing her.[11] Concurrently, Epirote king Aeacides mobilized 20,000 men to support Polyperchon but was defeated in a pitched battle by Cassander's forces under Philip the Acarnanian, further isolating the regent.[1] These failures expelled Polyperchon from Macedonia by mid-316 BC, shifting his operations to guerrilla actions in the Peloponnese and naval remnants, though Cassander's control solidified, ending the core phase of direct confrontation.[11]

Period of Exile and Shifting Alliances

Defeat and Flight from Macedonia

In 317 BC, Cassander advanced into Macedonia from the Peloponnese, besieging Olympias, Roxane, and the infant Alexander IV in Pydna while dispatching forces to contain Polyperchon's army. Polyperchon, positioned in Thessaly and Perrhaebia to counter the invasion, was soon besieged himself in the fortress of Azorius by Cassander's subordinates, including the general Antileon. Macedonian loyalty wavered amid resentment over Olympias' recent executions of Philip III Arrhidaeus and Eurydice, limiting Polyperchon's ability to rally reinforcements or relieve Pydna effectively.[11] Early in 316 BC, Olympias surrendered to Cassander under assurances of safety, only to be tried and executed shortly thereafter; Roxane and Alexander IV fell into Cassander's custody. Informed of these reversals, Polyperchon abandoned Azorius—likely dispersing his garrison to avoid capture—and withdrew southward, evading direct confrontation with Cassander's superior forces. This expulsion marked the collapse of Polyperchon's regency in the Macedonian core territories, compelling him to seek refuge in Epirus and pivot to maritime operations for survival.[11][16]

Coordination with Eumenes and Naval Operations

Following his defeat by Cassander's forces in Macedonia during 318 BC and subsequent withdrawal to the Peloponnese, Polyperchon maintained his strategic alliance with Eumenes of Cardia, who was leading royalist campaigns in Asia against Antigonus Monophthalmus.[1] This coordination was rooted in Polyperchon's position as regent for the Argead kings, Philip III Arrhidaeus and Alexander IV, which lent nominal legitimacy to Eumenes' eastern operations despite the geographical separation.[17] Polyperchon supported Eumenes by issuing proclamations that restored autonomy to Greek city-states, a policy Eumenes echoed to rally support against Cassander and Antigonus, though these efforts yielded limited tangible aid across the divided theaters.[11] A key element of their collaboration involved naval initiatives to challenge enemy control of the Aegean and eastern seas. In spring 318 BC, prior to Polyperchon's full retreat but amid escalating pressures, he secured a letter patent from King Philip III authorizing Eumenes to commandeer troops from Antigonus' army, seize royal treasuries, and construct a fleet in Phoenicia to reinforce Polyperchon's position.[1] Eumenes advanced into Syria and Phoenicia, repelling initial Ptolemaic interference and beginning shipbuilding with local resources, aiming to dispatch the vessels westward to aid Polyperchon's campaigns against Cassander.[18] However, Antigonus' rapid counteroffensive forced Eumenes to abandon the project, preventing the fleet from ever reaching Polyperchon and leaving the eastern naval effort unrealized.[1] Complementing these plans, Polyperchon relied on an existing royal fleet operating in the Aegean, commanded by the admiral Cleitus the White. In autumn 318 BC, this squadron—numbering around 100 ships—engaged Antigonus' forces under Nicanor near Byzantium in the Bosporus (or Hellespont per some accounts).[19] [20] After initial setbacks for Nicanor, Antigonus' reinforcements overwhelmed Cleitus' fleet in a two-day battle, resulting in its near-total destruction and the capture or flight of surviving vessels.[19] This naval catastrophe deprived Polyperchon of maritime supremacy, facilitating Cassander's consolidation in Greece and Athens by spring 317 BC, while underscoring the logistical challenges of coordinating distant alliances without unified sea power.[1]

Support for Alternative Argead Claimants

Following his defeat by Cassander's forces in 316 BC and subsequent exile from central Macedonia, Polyperchon maintained a precarious hold on parts of the Peloponnese and a naval presence, but lacked a strong dynastic figurehead to challenge Cassander's control over the Argead remnants. To counter this, he identified Heracles (c. 327–309 BC), the alleged illegitimate son of Alexander the Great and the Persian noblewoman Barsine, as a viable alternative claimant to the Macedonian throne, leveraging the young man's direct Argead lineage amid reports of Alexander IV's murder by Cassander around 310 BC.[11] Diodorus Siculus records that Polyperchon actively promoted Heracles' restoration to "his ancestral kingdom," portraying him as the legitimate heir capable of unifying pro-Argead factions disillusioned with Cassander's regency over the intellectually disabled Philip III Arrhidaeus (executed in 317 BC) and the late Alexander IV. This endorsement was pragmatic rather than ideological; Polyperchon, a veteran Macedonian loyalist, used Heracles' blood claim to rally troops and allies, including potential defectors from Cassander's ranks, emphasizing the dynastic continuity Alexander's line represented against the Antipatrid interlopers.[21] Scholars note this move presupposed Alexander IV's elimination, positioning Heracles as the sole surviving male Argead of Alexander's direct descent, though ancient sources like Diodorus do not confirm Heracles' paternity beyond Barsine's claims.[21] By 309 BC, Polyperchon had assembled an army around Heracles in the Peloponnese, proclaiming him basileus (king) to exploit lingering Macedonian traditionalism favoring Argead rule over Cassander's de facto monarchy.[11] This support, however, proved short-lived; facing military setbacks and diplomatic overtures from Cassander, Polyperchon surrendered Heracles, who was promptly executed, revealing the initiative as a tactical gambit rather than a sustained commitment to Argead restoration.[21] No other Argead claimants emerged under Polyperchon's banner during this exile phase, underscoring Heracles' role as the final, opportunistic pivot in his efforts to reclaim influence through dynastic legitimacy.

Reconciliation and Final Years

Invasion Attempt with Heracles

In 309 BC, following the murder of Alexander IV by Cassander's agents, Polyperchon proclaimed Heracles—the illegitimate son of Alexander the Great by the Persian noblewoman Barsine—as the rightful Argead heir to challenge Cassander's control of Macedonia.[11] Heracles, born circa 326 BC during Alexander's campaign in Asia, had lived in obscurity until Polyperchon elevated him as a rival claimant, leveraging the dynastic legitimacy of Alexander's bloodline to rally support among Macedonian traditionalists opposed to Cassander's regency.[1] This move aligned with Polyperchon's broader strategy to exploit Argead symbolism amid the fragmenting Diadochi conflicts, drawing on his residual influence in the Peloponnese and alliances with figures like Antigonus before their rift.[22] Polyperchon launched an invasion into Macedonia, advancing with forces that included Heracles but encountering swift resistance from Cassander's entrenched garrisons and loyalists.[23] The campaign, described as abortive by ancient sources like Diodorus Siculus (Book 20.28), faltered without decisive engagements, as Cassander's defensive preparations and Polyperchon's limited resources—stemming from his earlier defeats and exile—prevented a breakthrough.[1] Negotiations ensued, during which Polyperchon, seeking to avert total annihilation and secure his survival, betrayed his protégé by ordering the execution of Heracles and Barsine, reportedly to placate Cassander and end hostilities.[11] Ancient accounts, including Plutarch's Moralia, suggest Cassander may have incentivized the murder with a bribe of 100 talents, underscoring the pragmatic realpolitik of the era where dynastic pawns were expendable for personal security.[24] The failed incursion marked a definitive pivot for Polyperchon, subordinating him to Cassander's hegemony and extinguishing the last viable adult Argead alternative, thereby consolidating Cassander's dynastic ambitions despite lacking direct descent from Philip II or Alexander.[22] This episode highlighted the volatility of regency claims in the Wars of the Diadochi, where military opportunism often yielded to negotiated submission rather than battlefield triumph.[1]

Negotiations and Submission to Cassander

In 309 BC, after Polyperchon's failed invasion of Macedonia with Heracles, the son of Alexander the Great and Barsine, Cassander initiated secret negotiations with him at Stymphaeum to avert potential desertions among Macedonian troops to the rival claimant.[25] Cassander dispatched an embassy offering Polyperchon estates in Macedonia and a contingent of soldiers in exchange for Heracles' elimination, arguing that restoring the youth would destabilize the kingdom and invite further unrest.[25] Polyperchon, recognizing the weakness of his position and Antigonus' opportunistic support for the campaign, accepted the terms and assassinated Heracles, reportedly with Barsine as well, thereby removing the primary threat to Cassander's control over the Argead line.[25] [1] In fulfillment of the compact, Cassander provided Polyperchon with 4,000 Macedonian infantry and 500 Thessalian cavalry, enabling him to consolidate power in the Peloponnese as its strategos while submitting to Cassander's superior authority in Macedonian affairs.[25] This settlement marked Polyperchon's effective capitulation, ending his independent regency ambitions and aligning him against Antigonus, though it preserved his regional influence until further erosions in the ensuing Diadochi conflicts.[1] The agreement underscored Cassander's pragmatic diplomacy in neutralizing rivals without full-scale confrontation, prioritizing stability over total elimination of Polyperchon's forces.[25]

Obscure Activities and Death

Following his submission to Cassander circa 309 BC, Polyperchon's activities recede into historical obscurity, with no documented involvement in the major conflicts or political maneuvers of the Diadochi thereafter. Scholars note a complete absence of reliable records concerning his actions after this point, despite extensive analyses of the period's sources such as Diodorus Siculus and surviving inscriptions.[21][26] The date of Polyperchon's death remains uncertain, as primary sources provide no explicit account. He is last attested as alive in 304 BC, during the waning phases of the Successors' wars, leading most estimates to place his demise sometime between 304 and the early third century BC, potentially around 303 BC.[1] Alternative reconstructions, drawing on chronological gaps in Greek historiography, argue for an earlier death circa 308 BC to explain his sudden disappearance from narratives.[26]

Historical Assessment

Scholarly Views on Competence and Legacy

Historians characterize Polyperchon as a seasoned but ultimately mediocre commander whose career spanned from Philip II's era to the early Diadochi wars, relying on longevity and loyalty rather than exceptional talent. Waldemar Heckel portrays him as "a jackal among lions," implying a scavenging opportunist overshadowed by more dynamic figures like Antipater and Cassander.[27] His military record under Alexander included routine duties, such as suppressing resistance in central Asia around 328–327 BC, but lacked standout victories that elevated peers like Craterus or Ptolemy.[26] As regent from 319 BC, Polyperchon's competence drew scrutiny for political missteps, including the ill-advised alliance with Olympias in 317 BC, whose unpopularity alienated Macedonian elites and facilitated Cassander's counteroffensive. Scholars attribute his rapid downfall—culminating in defeat at the hands of Cassander's forces by late 317 BC—to inadequate intrigue skills and failure to consolidate loyalty among the hypaspists and argyraspids, whom he alienated by recalling Eumenes.[28] Antipater's selection of the elderly Polyperchon (likely in his seventies) over his son Cassander is often deemed anomalous, possibly reflecting a preference for the "old guard" to curb youthful ambition, yet underscoring Polyperchon's perceived pliability over strategic foresight.[28] Polyperchon's legacy endures as a symbol of transitional failure in the Argead succession crisis, embodying resistance to the Diadochi's monarchic innovations through nominal fidelity to Alexander IV until 309 BC. His abortive 309 BC invasion with Heracles failed to dislodge Cassander, after which he receded into obscurity, dying sometime post-303 BC without founding a viable power base.[21] Assessments frame him as emblematic of the old nobility's eclipse, hastening Macedonia's fragmentation under Cassander's Antigonid precursors, though some credit his pro-Argead stance for briefly preserving constitutional pretenses amid the Successors' self-aggrandizement.[26] Overall, his tenure accelerated the empire's dissolution without leaving institutional or territorial imprints comparable to enduring satrapies like those of Seleucus or Ptolemy.[27]

Debates on Motivations and Chronology

Scholars have debated the exact timing of Polyperchon's invasion of Macedonia in alliance with Antigonus, proposing either 309 BC or 308 BC based on discrepancies in Diodorus Siculus' chronography and supporting numismatic evidence from Cassander's coinage reforms.[29] The 308 BC date aligns with Ptolemy's Egyptian campaigns and Cassander's strategic responses, including the murder of Heracles shortly after Polyperchon's failed submission negotiations, whereas a 309 BC placement creates inconsistencies in the sequence of defections like that of Polemaeus to Cassander.[29] Alexander IV's execution is similarly contested, with late 309 BC favored to precede Heracles' death and reflect public pressures on Cassander to eliminate rival Argead claimants.[29] Significant gaps persist in Polyperchon's record from 318/7 BC onward, after his retreat from Phocis amid Cassander's consolidation, leading to hypotheses of unrecorded activities such as a military expedition to western Asia Minor in late summer 318 BC to autumn 317 BC.[26] This campaign, potentially evidenced by the Nesos decree (I. Adramytteion II 34), aimed to disrupt Antigonus' control amid the Eumenes-Antigonus conflict and Kassander's invasions, though its attribution to Polyperchon remains speculative due to broader Diadochi chronological uncertainties in the 310s BC.[26] His death is placed by some in 308 BC, simplifying alliances like Kratesipolis' motivations, rather than post-303 BC, which would imply prolonged obscurity without influence.[26] Regarding motivations, Polyperchon's promotion of Heracles as an alternative Argead claimant over the captive Alexander IV has been interpreted as a calculated move to destabilize Cassander, facilitated by Antigonus' strategic shifts after events like Philip III's murder, rather than unwavering dynastic loyalty.[29] This alliance, amid defections eroding his position from 313–308 BC, suggests pragmatic power restoration over ideological commitment, as Polyperchon's earlier Asian forays targeted Antigonus' resources to safeguard Macedonian legitimacy against encroaching rivals.[26] Elizabeth Carney characterizes his overall career as "successful mediocrity," attributing survival to adaptive opportunism—such as Antipater's regency appointment to counterbalance Cassander's ambition—rather than exceptional competence or principled adherence to Argead restoration.[27] These views contrast with Diodorus' implied portrayals of deceitful intent in Polyperchon's dealings, like feigned honors to claimants, highlighting tensions between personal ambition and the era's factional realignments.[30]

References

  1. Polyperchon - Livius.org
  2. Diadochi 3: The Second Diadoch War (West) - Livius.org
  3. Polyperchon: Unlucky or Unskilled General? - Albanopedia.
  4. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/18C*.html
  5. Polyperchon as 'Brigand': Propaganda or Misunderstanding? - jstor
  6. https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/NPOE/e1002220.xml
  7. LacusCurtius • Diodorus Siculus — Book XVIII Chapters 1‑25
  8. LacusCurtius • Diodorus Siculus — Book XVIII Chapters 26‑47
  9. DIADOCHI – MACEDONIAN GAME OF THRONES (PART 11)
  10. Cassander - World History Encyclopedia
  11. Polyperchon - in ancient sources @ attalus.org
  12. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/18A*.html
  13. Olympias - in ancient sources @ attalus.org
  14. https://www.livius.org/articles/person/olympias/
  15. https://www.livius.org/sources/content/diodorus/the-death-of-philip-arrhidaeus/
  16. Polyperchon - Macedonian People - Alexander the Great
  17. https://www.livius.org/articles/person/eumenes/
  18. Diadochi 4: The Second Diadoch War (East) - Livius.org
  19. 318 B.C. - events and references - Attalus.org
  20. Second Diadoch War, 319-316 BC
  21. The Date of Polyperchon's Invasion of Macedonia and Murder of ...
  22. Polyperchon | Oxford Classical Dictionary
  23. https://brill.com/display/book/9789004672376/back-9.pdf
  24. Heracles, the forgotten son of Alexander the Great - Megas Alexandros
  25. LacusCurtius • Diodorus Siculus — Book XX Chapters 19‑44
  26. "Missing years in the biography of Polyperchon (318/7 and 308 BC ...
  27. Successful Mediocrity: The Career of Polyperchon - ResearchGate
  28. [PDF] "The Women Who Would Be Kings" - NTNU Open
  29. 'The Date of Polyperchon's Invasion of Macedonia and Murder of ...
  30. [PDF] 3 implied motivation in diodorus' narrative of the successors - Histos
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