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Polywater was a hypothesized polymerized form of water that was the subject of much scientific controversy during the late 1960s, first described by Soviet scientist Nikolai Fedyakin. By 1969 the popular press had taken notice of Western attempts to recreate the substance and sparked fears of a "polywater gap" between the United States and Soviet Union. Increased press attention also brought with it increased scientific attention, and as early as 1970 doubts about its authenticity were being circulated.[1][2][3] By 1973 it was found to be illusory, being just water with any number of common compounds contaminating it.[4] Today, polywater is best known as an example of pathological science.[5]

Background

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In 1961, the Soviet physicist Nikolai Fedyakin, working at the Technological Institute of Kostroma, Russia, performed measurements on the properties of water which had been condensed in, or repeatedly forced through, narrow quartz capillary tubes. Some of these experiments resulted in what was seemingly a new form of water with a higher boiling point, lower freezing point, and much higher viscosity than ordinary water – about that of a syrup.[6][7]

Boris Derjaguin, director of the laboratory for surface physics at the Institute for Physical Chemistry in Moscow, heard about Fedyakin's experiments. He improved on the method to produce the new water, and though he still produced very small quantities of this mysterious material, he did so substantially faster than Fedyakin did. Investigations of the material properties showed a substantially lower freezing point of −40 °C or less, a boiling point of 150 °C or greater, a density of approx. 1.1 to 1.2 g/cm3, and increased expansion with increasing temperature. The results were published in Soviet science journals,[8] and short summaries were published in Chemical Abstracts in English, but Western scientists took no notice of the work.

In 1966, Derjaguin travelled to England for the "Discussions of the Faraday Society" in Nottingham. There, he presented the work again, and this time English scientists took note of what he referred to as anomalous water. English scientists then started researching the effect as well, and by 1968 it was also under study in the United States.

By 1969, the concept had spread to newspapers and magazines.[1][2] There was claimed interest at the Pentagon that there was a so-called "polywater gap" with the Soviet Union, a popular media term indicating a possible capability "gap", or discrepancy, between the US and the USSR, popularized by media hype of the "bomber gap" and the "missile gap", during periods when the USSR appeared to be outstripping the US in numbers of these various weapons.[9]

A scientific furore followed. Some experiments carried out were able to reproduce Derjaguin's findings, while others failed. Several theories were advanced to explain the phenomenon. Some proposed it was the cause for increasing resistance on trans-Atlantic phone cables, while others predicted that if polywater were to contact ordinary water, it would convert that water into polywater, echoing the doomsday scenario in Kurt Vonnegut's novel Cat's Cradle. By the 1970s, polywater was well known in the general population.[10]

During this time, several people questioned the authenticity of what had come to be known in the West as polywater. The main concern was contamination of the water, but the papers went to great lengths to note the care taken to avoid this. Denis Rousseau and Sergio Porto of Bell Labs carried out infrared spectrum analysis, which showed polywater to be mostly chlorine and sodium.[11]

Denis Rousseau undertook an experiment with his own sweat after playing a handball game at the lab and found it had identical properties. He then published a paper suggesting polywater was nothing more than water with small amounts of biological impurities.[12]

Another wave of research followed, this time more tightly controlled. Invariably, polywater could no longer be made. Chemical analysis found the samples of polywater to be contaminated with other substances (explaining the changes in melting and boiling points due to colligative properties), and examination of polywater by electron microscopy showed it also contained small particles of various solids – from silica to phospholipids, explaining its greater viscosity.

When the experiments which had initially produced polywater were repeated with thoroughly cleaned glassware, the anomalous properties of the resulting water vanished, and even the scientists who had originally advanced the case for polywater agreed it did not exist.

In August 1973, Derjaguin and N. V. Churaev published a letter in the journal Nature in which they wrote; "these [anomalous] properties should be attributed to impurities rather than to the existence of polymeric water molecules".[13]

Denis Rousseau used polywater as a classic example of pathological science and has since written on other examples as well.[14]

It has been suggested that polywater should have been dismissed on theoretical grounds. The laws of thermodynamics predicted that, since polywater had a higher boiling point than ordinary water, it meant it was more stable, and thus all of Earth's water should have turned spontaneously into polywater, instead of just part of it.[15] Richard Feynman remarked that if such a material existed, then an animal would exist that would ingest water and excrete polywater, using the energy released from the process to survive.[15]

In fiction

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The episodes "The Naked Time" (Star Trek, 1966) and its sequel, "The Naked Now" (Star Trek: The Next Generation, 1987) involve forms of polywater intoxication. In the original episode, a scientific research outpost falls victim to polywater, which causes the crew to become so incapacitated that they all died after shutting off environmental controls in the compound. In the sequel, a Starfleet vessel is discovered adrift, its crew frozen in various states due to polywater intoxication. The Star Trek: Lower Decks episode "I, Excretus" briefly features a simulated version of the USS Cerritos plagued by polywater intoxication, leading to a shipwide orgy, as part of a holodeck drill. Beckett Mariner attempts the simulation, but is unable to stomach the scenario and chooses to eject herself from an airlock.

The story "Polywater Doodle" by Howard L. Myers appeared in the February 1971 issue of Analog Science Fiction and Fact. It features an animal composed entirely of polywater, with the metabolism described by Richard Feynman. (The title of the story is a pun on "Polly Wolly Doodle".)

Polywater is the central idea of the 1972 espionage/thriller novel A Report from Group 17 by Robert C. O'Brien. The story revolves around the use of a type of polywater to make people controllable and incapable of independent thought or action.

Business

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There is a company named American Polywater Corporation, which is unrelated to the hypothesized form of water. The company is based in Stillwater, Minnesota.[16][17][18]

See also

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References

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Polywater

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from Grokipedia
Polywater, also known as anomalous water, was a purported new state of water that captured scientific attention in the 1960s as a viscous, polymeric form distinct from ordinary liquid water.[1][2] First observed in 1961 by Soviet physicist Nikolai Fedyakin at the Kostroma Technological Institute, it formed when water vapor condensed inside narrow glass capillary tubes, yielding a substance that appeared denser, more viscous, and with unusual thermal properties, such as freezing at around -40°C and boiling near 200°C.[1][2] Proponents, including Boris Deryagin of the Soviet Academy of Sciences, hypothesized it as a stable polymer of water molecules with a honeycomb-like structure, sparking international excitement and funding from both U.S. and Soviet institutions, with predictions of revolutionary applications in materials science and even as a potential weapon.[1][2] The phenomenon gained prominence after Deryagin's 1966 presentation at a University of Nottingham conference, where it was replicated by Western researchers like Ellis Lippincott, who published spectroscopic evidence in Science in 1969 supporting its uniqueness.[1][2] However, skepticism arose due to difficulties in producing pure samples and inconsistencies in properties, leading to a heated debate that highlighted Cold War scientific rivalries.[3][2] By 1971, American chemist Denis Rousseau at Bell Laboratories demonstrated through careful analysis that polywater's anomalies stemmed from contamination by silica from the glass tubes and organic impurities like human sweat, evaporating samples to reveal ordinary water residue.[1][2] Deryagin conceded the findings in 1973, marking the end of polywater research and its recognition as a classic case of scientific error driven by experimental artifacts and confirmation bias.[1][3] Today, polywater serves as a cautionary tale in the history of science, illustrating the importance of rigorous controls and replication in claims of novel discoveries.[1][2]

History

Discovery

Polywater was first observed in 1961 by Soviet chemist Nikolai Fedyakin while working at the Technological Institute of Kostroma.[4] Fedyakin conducted experiments on the adsorption of water vapor in narrow glass capillary tubes, approximately the diameter of a human hair, using a vacuum chamber to condense the vapor inside the sealed tubes.[1] After allowing the tubes to stand upright for several weeks, he noted the formation of small beads of a viscous, oily liquid at the bottom, which separated from the bulk water and exhibited unusual properties such as higher density and viscosity compared to ordinary water.[2] Fedyakin's initial findings were published in 1962 in the Colloid Journal of the USSR.[5] The discovery attracted the attention of Boris V. Deryagin, a renowned Soviet physicist and director of the Laboratory of Surface Forces at the Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Academy of Sciences in Moscow.[1] Deryagin collaborated with Fedyakin to replicate and study the substance, proposing it as a polymeric form of water resulting from the confinement in narrow capillaries that altered its molecular structure.[4] Deryagin formally introduced polywater to the international scientific community in 1966 during a presentation at the Discussions of the Faraday Society at the University of Nottingham, where he described its anomalous behavior and potential implications for understanding water's properties under extreme conditions.[6] This announcement, building on earlier Soviet reports, ignited global interest among chemists and physicists, leading to independent replication attempts in the West by the late 1960s.[1]

Initial Research and Claims

In the early 1960s, Soviet researcher Nikolai Fedyakin at the Kostroma Technological Institute began experimenting with the condensation of water vapor under vacuum conditions inside narrow glass capillary tubes, typically 0.01 to 0.1 mm in diameter. He observed that a small amount of liquid—about 0.01 ml—separated from the bulk condensed water, exhibiting unusual behavior such as remaining stable and not mixing easily with ordinary water. Fedyakin hypothesized this as a new phase of water and co-authored a preliminary report with Boris Deryagin in 1962, describing its enhanced viscosity and other properties.[2][1] Deryagin, director of the Institute of Physical Chemistry in Moscow, expanded on Fedyakin's work starting in 1964, replicating the capillary condensation method using purified quartz tubes to minimize contamination. His team reported in 1965 that the anomalous liquid formed columns within the capillaries, suggesting an allotropic modification of water where vapor condensed into a structurally distinct state under the influence of the tube walls. They proposed this "anomalous water" resulted from water molecules forming polymeric chains, (H₂O)ₙ, stabilized by hydrogen bonds in a honeycomb-like lattice. This claim was detailed in a series of publications, emphasizing the liquid's thermodynamic stability over ordinary water.[1][7] The initial claims highlighted several striking physical properties, including a density approximately 40% higher than normal water (around 1.4 g/cm³), viscosity up to 10 times greater, a freezing point as low as -40°C where it solidified into a brownish glass without volume expansion, and a boiling point exceeding 200°C without evaporation. Deryagin's group measured these via optical microscopy, densitometry, and thermal analysis, asserting the liquid's light-bending index differed and it expanded anomalously upon heating. These findings gained international notice after Deryagin's 1966 presentation at the Discussions of the Faraday Society at the University of Nottingham, sparking replication efforts in the West.[2][1][6]

Claimed Properties

Physical Characteristics

Polywater was reported to exhibit a density of approximately 1.4 g/cm³, significantly higher than that of ordinary water at 1.0 g/cm³. This increased density contributed to its gel-like appearance and was attributed to a proposed polymeric structure of water molecules.[8][9] The substance demonstrated markedly elevated viscosity, estimated at about 15 times that of normal water, resulting in a syrupy consistency that resisted flow even under moderate pressure. This property was observed during extraction from narrow quartz capillaries and was a key factor in distinguishing polywater from conventional liquid water. Researchers noted that the high viscosity persisted across a range of temperatures, further supporting claims of structural anomaly.[10][11] Thermal properties of polywater deviated substantially from those of regular water. Its coefficient of thermal expansion was approximately 1.5 times greater, leading to more pronounced volume changes upon heating. The freezing behavior showed a broad interval from -31.5°C to -60.1°C, rather than a sharp point at 0°C, and the material contracted upon solidification. Boiling occurred over an elevated range of 249°C to 299.8°C, with decomposition only at much higher temperatures around 650°C.[8][9][12] Optically, polywater displayed a higher refractive index, causing it to bend light differently than ordinary water when observed under a microscope. Infrared and Raman spectroscopy suggested a honeycomb-like network of H₂O units, with each oxygen atom bonded to three hydrogens, consistent with the observed physical traits.[1][13]

Analytical Evidence

Initial analytical investigations of polywater focused on spectroscopic techniques to elucidate its purported polymeric structure. Soviet researchers, led by Boris V. Deryagin at the Institute of Physical Chemistry in Moscow, prepared polywater by condensing water vapor in narrow quartz capillaries and reported preliminary evidence from density measurements (1.1–1.4 g/cm³) and viscosity assessments suggesting a distinct phase from ordinary water. These findings were supported by early infrared absorption data indicating altered hydrogen bonding, though detailed spectra were not initially published.[14] More comprehensive spectroscopic analysis came from American researchers collaborating with Deryagin's group. In a seminal study, Ellis R. Lippincott and colleagues at the University of Maryland and the National Bureau of Standards examined polywater samples using high-resolution infrared and Raman spectroscopy. The infrared spectrum revealed the absence of the broad OH stretching band (typically 2500–4000 cm⁻¹ in liquid water) and instead showed sharp bands at 1595 cm⁻¹ and a doublet near 1400 cm⁻¹, interpreted as evidence of strong, symmetric O-H-O hydrogen bonds in a polymeric lattice. The Raman spectrum complemented this with a prominent peak at 620 cm⁻¹ and weaker features at 3940, 3420, and other positions, differing markedly from those of normal water or ice and supporting a proposed honeycomb-like structure of H₂O units with shortened O···O distances (around 2.3 Å).[14] Chemical composition analyses, including emission spectroscopy, detected trace impurities such as sodium (<0.5%) and silicon, but these were dismissed as artifacts from the quartz capillaries, with the bulk material confirmed as primarily H₂O through elemental analysis. X-ray diffraction patterns were reported as amorphous, consistent with a glassy polymeric state stable up to 500°C. These results, replicated in multiple laboratories including in the UK and US, lent credence to polywater's anomalous properties until further scrutiny.[14]

Controversy and Debunking

Replication Attempts

Initial attempts to replicate the discovery of polywater by Soviet scientist Boris Deryagin focused on condensing water vapor in narrow glass or quartz capillaries under controlled pressure and temperature conditions, as described in his 1966 paper. In 1969, British researcher Brian Pethica at Unilever Research Laboratory successfully produced samples exhibiting the claimed viscous, high-density properties, reporting a gel-like consistency and anomalous expansion behavior in a letter to Nature. Similarly, L.J. Bellamy at the U.K.'s Atomic Weapons Research Establishment replicated the synthesis that year, obtaining material with matching physical characteristics and sharing samples internationally for further analysis. In the United States, early replications bolstered enthusiasm for polywater. Robert R. Stromberg and Warren H. Grant at the National Bureau of Standards produced approximately 1-2 grams of the substance using Deryagin's method, confirming elevated viscosity (up to 100 times that of ordinary water), higher density (about 1.4 g/cm³), and a depressed freezing point around -40°C.[14] Ellis R. Lippincott's team at the University of Maryland analyzed these and imported samples via infrared and Raman spectroscopy, identifying spectral bands suggestive of a unique polymeric structure, such as a proposed hexagonal ring configuration, published in Science in June 1969.[14] These efforts, involving clean capillaries and purified water sources, initially supported the existence of a novel water phase. However, subsequent replication attempts revealed inconsistencies and difficulties in consistently producing uncontaminated samples. By late 1969, some U.S. and European labs reported failures to achieve the exact spectral profiles or thermal properties without trace impurities, attributing variability to capillary surface effects or handling procedures. In 1970, Denis L. Rousseau at Bell Laboratories attempted replication using Raman spectroscopy on self-produced samples, observing charring and spectral anomalies that did not match prior claims. Further analysis in 1971 demonstrated that polywater's infrared spectrum closely resembled diluted human sweat, containing sodium, potassium, and lactate ions from skin contamination during manual capillary drawing. Electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA) on samples confirmed high concentrations of these electrolytes, explaining the observed properties as artifacts of impure, silica-leached solutions rather than a true polymer.[15] These findings, corroborated by re-examinations from Stromberg and Lippincott, led to widespread acceptance that polywater was not a distinct substance, with Deryagin conceding the contamination role by 1973.

Identification of Contaminants

Investigations into the composition of polywater samples revealed significant contamination rather than a novel polymeric form of water. In 1970, Denis L. Rousseau and Sergio P. S. Porto at Bell Laboratories conducted infrared and Raman spectroscopic analyses on multiple polywater specimens prepared via standard capillary condensation methods. These analyses identified high concentrations of ionic impurities, including up to 60% sodium, 15% chlorine, and 15% sulfate by weight, which accounted for many of the anomalous physical properties previously attributed to a new water structure.[5] Further examination linked these impurities to biological sources. Rousseau's subsequent infrared spectroscopy in 1971 demonstrated that the spectral profile of polywater closely matched that of human sweat, with peaks corresponding to lactate ions and other sweat components, such as sodium lactate. Mass spectrometry on 25 samples provided by Soviet researcher B. V. Derjaguin confirmed the presence of these bio-organic contaminants, suggesting inadvertent introduction during handling, such as through perspiration from researchers. Independent studies identified silica-based contaminants leaching from the glass apparatus used in preparation. In 1971, B. F. Howell and J. Lancaster reported that all reported properties of polywater—such as elevated viscosity and density—were replicated by aqueous silica sols containing sodium oxide, formed by corrosion of quartz or glass capillaries. Their attempts to produce polywater from distilled water alone failed, indicating that silicate impurities from the apparatus were essential to the observed effects. Similarly, a 1970 analysis in Nature concluded that polywater consisted primarily of water contaminated with silicates and other solutes, rather than a distinct phase.[16]

Legacy

Scientific Impact

The polywater controversy significantly influenced scientific practices by underscoring the critical need for rigorous impurity control and sample purity in experimental chemistry. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, researchers produced nearly 100 papers annually on the topic, diverting substantial resources—estimated in the millions of dollars—from other water-related studies, including U.S. government grants like the $75,000 ARPA funding for mass production attempts. This episode highlighted how small-scale, non-reproducible samples could lead to widespread misinterpretation, as initial spectroscopic evidence supporting polywater's uniqueness was later attributed to contaminants such as silica and human perspiration.[1][2][17] The debunking of polywater in 1971 fostered greater emphasis on skepticism and peer validation for extraordinary claims, aligning with principles later popularized by Carl Sagan's maxim that such assertions require commensurate evidence. Denis Rousseau's demonstration that "polywater" was essentially sweat-contaminated ordinary water exemplified "pathological science," a term coined by Irving Langmuir to describe research driven by bias rather than robust data, prompting chemists to adopt stricter protocols for replication and large-scale synthesis. This shift improved standards in physical chemistry, particularly in spectroscopic analysis, reducing the risk of similar errors in studies of anomalous substances.[3][2][1] Beyond methodology, polywater's legacy extended to international scientific collaboration and public engagement, as the Cold War-era race between U.S. and Soviet researchers—marked by symposia and exchanges—temporarily bridged geopolitical divides but also eroded credibility when the phenomenon collapsed. The controversy redirected attention to genuine water anomalies, such as the Mpemba effect, where hot water freezes faster than cold under certain conditions, spurring more grounded investigations into water's complex behavior. Ultimately, it served as a cautionary tale in science education, illustrating how media hype and premature speculation can amplify unverified findings, with implications for funding decisions and ethical reporting in emerging fields.[18][3][17]

Cultural and Commercial References

Polywater, the purported polymeric form of water that captivated scientists in the late 1960s, permeated popular culture amid its scientific controversy, often evoking themes of scientific hubris and Cold War intrigue. In literature, it drew comparisons to Kurt Vonnegut's fictional ice-nine from his 1963 novel Cat's Cradle, a supercooled form of ice capable of freezing all water on Earth at room temperature, mirroring fears that polywater could similarly destabilize global water supplies.[1] The substance inspired science fiction works, including the 1971 novelette "Polywater Doodle" by Howard L. Myers, published in Analog Science Fiction/Science Fact, which satirized the scientific frenzy surrounding the discovery through a tale of experimental mishaps.[19] Additionally, polywater served as a central plot device in Robert C. O'Brien's 1972 espionage thriller A Report from Group 17, where it features as a weaponized agent in a narrative of international scientific espionage. In television, polywater appeared in the 1966 Star Trek: The Original Series episode "The Naked Time," depicted as a polymerized water variant formed under extreme gravimetric conditions on the planet Psi 2000, causing intoxication-like effects by suppressing inhibitions among the crew.[20] This concept was revisited in the 1987 Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "The Naked Now," reinforcing polywater's role as a sci-fi trope for mind-altering anomalies. Media coverage amplified its cultural footprint, with sensational headlines like "New Water Doesn't Freeze" in outlets such as The New York Times fueling public imagination and Cold War anxieties about Soviet scientific superiority.[2] Physicist J. D. Bernal warned in Nature of polywater's potential as "the most dangerous material on earth," heightening fears of apocalyptic misuse, while U.S. military interest, including Pentagon funding for research to counter Soviet advances, was reported in The Wall Street Journal.[1] Commercially, the polywater saga influenced product naming in the chemical industry. In 1973, chemist Nelson Jonnes founded American Polywater Corporation, commonly known as Polywater, a specialty chemical manufacturer headquartered in Stillwater, Minnesota. The company trademarked "Polywater®" for its innovative water-based lubricant designed to reduce friction during underground cable installation in electrical and telecommunications infrastructure. Jonnes, inspired by the 1960s controversy and owning a copy of Felix Franks' 1981 book Polywater, chose the name to evoke a sense of mythical innovation, likening his lubricant—essentially a "polymerized" water solution—to the elusive substance's legendary status.[21] The company develops and produces field-specific chemical solutions for the electrical, communications, gas, water, sewer, and utility industries, focusing on cable installation, maintenance, cleaning, lubrication, and sealing. It began with water-based cable pulling lubricants and has expanded to include cleaners, duct sealants, adhesives, MRO products, and more. Since around 2020, Polywater has partnered with German company Hauff-Technik to distribute and support engineered mechanical seals in the United States and Canada under the Polywater | Hauff-Technik brand. These mechanical seals protect cables, conduits, pipes, and building entries from water, gas, dust, pests, and environmental ingress, featuring adjustable segmented ring technology (e.g., PHRD-SG, PHSD-SSG models), split one-piece designs for retrofits, stainless steel components, EPDM rubber options, watertight performance up to 36 psi (2.5 bar), gastight/airtight properties, resistance to corrosion/vibration/movement, 10-year warranty, UL and CSA certifications (including for hazardous locations like Class I Division 2), and suitability for applications in substations, data centers, water treatment, and critical infrastructure. The partnership leverages Polywater's utility market presence for sales and support of these durable, code-compliant sealing solutions.[22] The company remains a global leader in specialty chemicals for cable pulling and maintenance, continuing to market products under the Polywater brand and transforming the debunked scientific curiosity into an enduring commercial legacy.[23]
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